Childhood Development-Lecture Slides 01-Psychology, Slides of Childhood Development

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PSYC 2006: Childhood Development INSTRUCTOR: Stephanie Rees ROOM: Monday to Thursday 6-9pm OVERVIEW OF COURSE • from birth to adolescence • development: biological, social, perceptual, and cognitive theories • GRADING: – 2 tests at 15% each (30%) – best 2 out of 3 assignments at 20% each (40%) – Final exam worth 30% What do we mean by “DEVELOPMENT”? • Changes over the life span: – Conception & Prenatal Development – Birth – Infancy – Childhood – Adolescence – Adulthood – Aging – Death infancy childhood adolescence adulthood aging C D AGE RANGES • Newborn: birth to 1 month • Infant: 1 month to 1 year • Toddler: 1 to 2 years • Preschooler: 2 to 6 years • School-age child: 6 to 12 years • Adolescent: 12 to 20 years • Young adult: 20 to 40 years • Middle-aged adult: 40 to 60 years • Young-old adult: 60 to 80 years • Old-old adult: 80 years + AREAS OF STUDY • Biological issues • Social issues • Cognitive issues • Perceptual issues • Stage Theories of Development What can we look at with these areas of study? NATURE vs. NUTURE • Genetics and/or Environment • Which is more important? • Can we separate the effects of these two? • How much influence does each have? – Intelligence? – Social Behavior? – Employment? CONTINUITY vs. DISCONTINUITY • Continuity: traits that are stable over time • Discontinuity: traits that change over time and with experience • smooth progression vs. abrupt shifts • Is it the same for all traits and for all individuals? UNIVERSAL vs. CONTEXT- SPECIFIC • Do we all develop in the same way? • What about different environments, cultures, values, etc.? – do these make a difference? • Rates of development • Stages of development BIOLOGICAL FORCES • Biological development: – Brain maturation – Transitions: Puberty, Menopause, etc. – Genetics • Can be affected by environment – example: effects of early environment PSYCHOLOGICAL FORCES • Characteristics of personality • Internal cognitive, emotional, personality, perceptual, and related factors that influence behavior • focus of this course SOCIOCULTURAL FORCES • How people and environments interact and relate • Individuals and institutions: form culture – Ex. family, cohort, country, etc. • Can change with times (history) – Societal values change over generations – Inventions, language, etc. THEORIES • Psychodynamic Theory • Learning Theory • Cognitive-Developmental Theory • Ecological and Systems Approach • Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization, and Life Course Perspective PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY • internal motives and drives that are largely unconscious – nature or nurture?: INSTINCTIVE, but….. • stage theories • Freud (1856-1939) – Father of psychology • Erikson (1902-1994) – Psychosocial theory SIGMUND FREUD • Most famous and influential founder of scientific psychology • the Freudian slip and Dream Analysis • Psychoanalysis has been isolated from scientific psychology – pseudoscience • Based on “reliable observations” – case studies STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 8. Integrity vs. Despair trust achievement wholeness LEARNING THEORY • how learning influences behaviors • emphasizes role of experience – nature or nurture?: IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT • Skinner (1904-1990) – Behaviourism • Bandura (1925) – Social Learning Theory B.F. SKINNER • Child’s mind is a blank slate at birth • Operant Conditioning – Reinforcement: increasing behavior • Positive vs. Negative – Punishment: decreasing behavior • Positive vs. Negative • Skinner’s Pigeons • Skinner Box • Skinner’s Daughter S R JEAN PIAGET • how we construct knowledge over time – making sense of the world • Criticisms • Critical points of development: 1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational thought 3. Concrete Operational thought 4. Formal Operational thought LAWRENCE KOHLBERG • Stages of thinking of moral dilemmas • correspond with Piaget’s stages • Stages of moral development: 1. Preconventional stage: Punishment and Reward 2. Conventional stage: Social Norms 3. Postconventional stage: Moral Codes STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Preconventional stage: Punishment and Reward 1. Obedience to authority 2. Future favours 2. Conventional stage: Social Norms 3. Other’s expectations 4. Rules to maintain social order 3. Postconventional stage: Moral Codes 5. Adhere to social contract when valid 6. Personal moral system based on abstract principles URIE BRONFENBRENNER • Four levels of environment 1. Microsystem: immediate environment 2. Mesosystem: many microsystems ex. home and work 3. Exosystem: social settings not experienced directly 4. Macrosystem: culture COMPETENCE- ENVIRONMENTAL PRESS • Adapt to environment based on competency and ability • nature or nurture?: BIT OF BOTH? • Demands of environment create behavior through abilities of individual OVERVIEW THEORIES • LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE – multiply determined – not one framework • SELECTIVE-OPTIMIZATION – three processes form a system that regulates development • Selection, Optimization, and Compensation • LIFE COURSE PERSPECTIVE – various generations and historical context SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION WITH COMPENSATION • Selection: choose goals, life domains, and life tasks • Optimization and Compensation: maintaining and enhancing goals • selecting from a range of possibilities – Elective selection – Loss-based selection Con’t…. • Optimization: minimize loss and maximize gain – best match between resources and goals LIFE COURSE PERSPECTIVE • Several key transitions to life – Ex. finishing school, marriage, getting a job – Happen at different times for different people • How an individual’s life relates to historical events • Individual’s transitions with familial transitions • Impact of earlier life events on later life events INTERACTION WITH PEERS • Psychodynamic Theory: early stage resolutions • Learning Theory: what others do and/or rewards • Cognitive-Developmental Theory: stages • Ecological and Systems Approach: environment • Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization, and Life Course Perspective: many aspects DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH STRATEGIES MEASUREMENT • Systemic observation: – observing without disturbing – Naturalistic observation: spontaneous behavior in natural environment – Structure observation: environment is likely to elicit behavior of interest – Problems: people aware of being observed Con’t…. • Measurements used must be: 1. Reliable - consistent index of characteristic - always measures same characteristic 2. Valid - measuring what is wanted - same results as other tests measuring the same characteristic RESEARCH DESIGNS • Correlational Studies – Relations between variables • positive and negative relationships – Correlation coefficient: strength and direction of relation – BUT…. influence of other variables – example: height relating to weight but does height cause weight, or vice versa? Con’t…. • Experimental Studies – manipulating factors to give cause and effect • Independent variable: manipulated • Dependent variable: measured (“depends on”) – random assignment to groups – usually not in a natural setting – ex. Ritalin decreases attention deficits Con’t…. • Sequential Studies – Cross-sectional and Longitudinal approach • starts with one than adds the other – address limitations of other two designs • Isolate cohort effects • Isolate drop-out effects – but still very expensive RESEARCH ETHICS • Minimize risks to participants • Describe research to potential participants • Avoid deception – If must be deceived: provide explanation as soon as possible • Results should be anonymous and confidential SCIENTIFIC METHOD * Question ¢ Hypothesis ° Testing/Data Collection * Theory ¢ Law APPLYING RESULTS • Does any of this research help us? • Is any of this research applicable? • Can have effects on policymaking – Importance of Day Care – Teacher-Student Ratios in Classroom CONCLUSION CONCLUSION • Several approaches to studying development: – Some are independent of one another and some overlap – Remember as we go through course about these different approaches • Research strategies • Importance of well-done research