earth and life science rerviewer, Exercises of Earth science

Download earth and life science rerviewer and more Exercises Earth science in PDF only on Docsity! Earth's Atmosphere The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, and traoe amounts of carbon dioxide and other components. The presenoe of oxygen and carbon dioxide permits life on Earth. Carbon dioxide is used by photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, to oonvert the energy from the sun to usable energy through the process of photosynthesis. The oxygen makes it livable for living organisms including humans for respiration and for our cells to function. Earth's atmosphere also protects us from the sun's radiation. Thirty percent of the radiation is reflected away by the atmosphere, clouds, and the earth's surface. Another 25% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds, and the remaining 45% is absorbed by the earth's surface. Ozone is composed of three oxygen atoms. Located in the stratosphere, this layer absorbs the ultraviolet wavelengths, and the absorption of this radiation heats up the air. Earth's Soil and Vegetation The soil is a mixture of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and organisms. It is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation. The soil promotes growth for plants by providing nutrients, water, and as a substrate for anchorage of roots. In return, vegetation produces trees and forests cover, ensures the water and nutrient cycle, and prevents soil and wind erosion. This mutual relationship of the soil and vegetation makes our planet livable. According to the FAO, healthy soils are crucial for ensuring the continued growth of natural and managed vegetation, providing feed, fiber, fuel, medicinal products and other ecosystem services such as climate regulation and oxygen production. Soils and vegetation have a reciprocal relationship. Fertile soil encourages plant growth by providing plants with nutrients, acting as a water holding tank, and serving as the substrate to which plants anchor their roots. In return, vegetation, tree cover and forests prevent soil degradation and desertification by stabilizing the soil, maintaining water and nutrient cycling, and reducing water and wind erosion. Earth's Hydrosphere The hydrosphere contains all the water on our planet including ice and vapor. Nearly three- quarters of the earth's surface is the sea and the ocean. The ocean nouses many species of marine life and diverse mineral resources. Other forms of water include river, streams, and lakes. Other than being a water reservoir, these forms of water are all sources of fish and shellfish that we consume. They also serve as thermostat and neat reservoir, especially the ocean. They also serve as ways for transportation. The Earth's Four Subsystems Earth system is essentially a dosed system. It receives energy from the sun and returns some of this energy to space. The Earth is comprised of four major subsystems. These subsystems are also called the “spheres of the Earth "Tneyare atmosphere, geosphere, nydrospnere, and biospnere. Atmosphere The word atmosphere comes from the Greek word atmos whicn rr›eans gas, and sphaira wnich means globe or ball. The atmosphere makes up of all the gases on Earth. It extends outward about 10 000 km from the surface of the Earth. It is amgosed of 78.1st nitrogen, 20.9°A oxygen, 0.9°A argon, 350 ppm carbon dioâde, and other components. The atmosphere has different layers — troposphere, stmtosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The tsophere extends to about 14 5 km above the Earth's surface. 1 is the lowest layer where the weather forms. The stratosphere is found 14.5 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The ozone ayer that protects the Earth from the Sun's narmful UV radiation is found in this layer. The sphere extends from 50 to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It protects the Earth from the impact of space debris. The therrrosphere is found 85 to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has charged Streak is the color of the mineral in its powdered form. It is inherent in almost every mineral, and is a mole diagnostic property compared to color. Note that the color of a mineml can be different from its streak. 42. Sulfur (Yellon/ 43. Mala chite (Green J 44. Pyrite (6Ia ck i 45. Goethrte {Brow n;i 46. Fluc'rife {\'\/ hite › 47. Rho dochro site \Y.' hite1 48. Hem atite (Red) 49. Zinc ite (Or«ng e i 5Q. Azurite '{Blue i 51. Cinnaba r (R ed) Luster is the relative diherences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as light is reflected on its surface. This describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral surfaces. There are two types: a. Metallic — generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a polished metal b. Non-metallic — vitreous (glassy). ad.amantine (briJlianVdiamond -like j, resinous, silky, pear1y, dulJ (earthy), greasy, among others VilrcMs Lu8tar PeBrlyL umer IüIl4yLæf0f Adamamine Luster Specific gravity is the mtio of the weight of the mineml to the weight of the water with an equal volume. This parameter indicates how many times more the mineml weighs compared to an equal amount of water (SG 1). For example, a bucket of silver (SG 1Oj would weigh ten times more than a bucket of water. Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to aürasions or scratches. lt is generally measured using Mohs Scale of Hardness designed by German geologist/mineralogist Friedn ch Mohs in 1812. The Mohs Scale of Hardness measures the scratch resistanœ of various minerals from a scule of 1 to 1 0 ( 1 O being the nardest, 1 bei ng the softest), based on the ability of a harder material/mineral to scratcn a softer one. Mohs Hard ness Scale N a me Div m o nd Topuz 7 5 Gleavage is the tendency of the mineral to be split or broKen along flat surfaces. These planes exist because the bonding of atoms making up tne mineral happens to be weak in those areas. When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is described by tne number of cleavage directions, the angle(s) at wni en they meet, and the quality of cleavage (e.g . cleavage in 2 directions at 90°). Tenacity refers to the behavior of the mineral under deformation or stress such as cutting, crusn ng, bending, or mating. Crystal habit refers to the growth crystal pattern of a mineral as single or aggregated. The form reflects the supposedly internal structure (of atoms and ions) of the crystal (mineral). It is the natural shape of the mineml before the development of any cleavage or fracture. A mineral that do not have a crystal structure is described as amorphous. Chemical Properties of Minerals All minerals have a certain arrangement of elements in their crystal structure. Tney can be represented by a chemical formula, which presents the proportions of atoms that constitute them. For example, the mineral quartz has a chemical formula SiO2. Its crystal structure is a antinuous framework of silicon-oxygen tetranedra. The chemical properties of minerals depend on their cnemical formula and crystal structure. Solubility and melting point are cnemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral. Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified temperature. For example, biotite, a mineral commonly foun0 in igneous rocks, is soluble in both acid and base solutions. The dissolution releases the foaseg-boun0 potassium ions in the mineral. Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals composed of atoms that are £gn y bonded within the crystal structure nave high melting points. For example, quartz melts above 1670°C. What is the difference between magma and lava? > Magma is the molten rock below the Each's sudace. > Lava is the molten rock flowing on the Each's sudace. Igneous Rocks > Igneous rocks that formed from the solidification of molten rock material (magma or lava). Igneous rocks are further classified as intrusive or extrusi ve igneous based on grain size. Note that the rate of cooling is one of the most important factors that control crystal size and the texture of the rock in general. > Intrusive rocks, or plutonic rocks, are igneous rocks formed underneath the earth. They are coarse- grained due to the slow cooling of magma allowing crystal growth. Examples of intrusive rocks include granite, diorite and gabbro. > Extrusive rocks, or volcanic rocks, are igneous rocks formed on the surface of the earth. They are cooled lava, which are molten rocks ejected on the surface through volcanic eruptions. They are fine- grained due to abrupt cooling on the surface. Examples of extrusive rocks include rhyolite, andesite and basalt. > Igneous rocks can also be classified based on grain size, general composition, and percentage mineral composition specifically silica content. The four classification of igneous rocks based on these are felsic, intermediate, dark-colored mafic, and ultramafic. a. felsic: also called granitic; >65% silica, generally light-colored b. intermediate: also called andesitic; 55-65% silica; generally medium colored (medium gray) c. mafic: also called basaltic; 45-55% silica; generally dark colored d. ultramafic: <45% silica; generally very dark colored; composed mainly of olivine and pyroxene which are the major constituents of the upper mantle Intrusive Plutonic Rocks Extrusive Volcanic Rocks olite andesite basal t Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks are formed through the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of sediments, a process called lithification. Sedimentary processes at or near the surface of the Earth include weathering of rocks, sediment transport and compaction and cementation. Sedimentary racks are classified into c\asti r or non- claetir. Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of sediments from preexisting rocks. When preexisting rocks are physically weathered and eroded, they form sediments. When these sediments are transported, deposited, and lithified, they form the elastic sedimentary rocks. These rocks can be identified based on their grcin sizes that can range from 0.002 mm (e.g. cluy size) to > 2 mm (coarse gravel). Non-clastic sedimentary rocks can be biological, chemicčtl, or a combination of both. Biological sedirnentary rocks are lithified accumulation of dead organisms. Examples indude coal (formed from carbon-rich plantsj and limestone (formed from the remains of calcareous organisms) On the other hand, chemical sedimentary rocks are from chemical precipitation. An example is rock salt formed when dissolved salts precipitate from a solution. Below is a table of chemical sedimentary rocks based on composition and texlure size. Exogenic Processes Exogenic processes are geologic processes happening on the Earth's surface. They are genetically related to the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Exogenic processes include the processes of weathering, erosion and deposition. Weathering All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces through physical/mechanical, chemical or biological means. Physical / Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are broken down into smaller pieces without changing its chemical composition due to different temperatures and water. Rocks in the highway develop cracks and small fractures because of too much exposure to heat. This activity is an example of mechanical weathering. Chemical weatherinq is a process wherein rock materials are changed into other substances that have different physical and chemical compositions. Some agents of chemical weathering include water, strong acids, and oxygen. Water hydrates and breaks the minerals in the rocks through the process of hydrolysis. Oxygen combines with metals to produce oxides while acids from vents and volcanoes increase the speed of weathering process. One example of chemical weathering in rocks is when rainwater hydrolyzed the feldspar minerals to fnrm clav minerals. Biological weathering is a process when living things, such as .nsects and roots of the trees, contribute to the disintegration of rock materials. For example, mosses and fungi that grow on rocks produce weak acids that can destroy or dissolve the rocks. Erosion Erosion is the Fansportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running water or rivers, wind, gravity, groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers conFibute to erosion. Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the sediments to diRerent parts of the bodies of water such as rivers. Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and pebbles, are carried by wind to different places. Glacial erosion nappens when the ice moves downnill and plucks out chunks of rocks and causes scraping between the ice and the rock. Plucking and scraping can lead to the development of other landforms if, for example, the glaciers nit a mountain and erode it. foil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil .nfertiIe. This is caused by wind or flood in an area. Deposition Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or final destination. Tne depositional environment can be continental, aastal, or marine. Continental includes sFeams, swamps, caves, and deseM. Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas. Endogenic Processes Endogenic processes are geologic processes which occurs under the Earth's surface such as magmatism, plutonism, volcanism and metamorphism. Endogenic processes are caused by forces from within or in the interior of the Earth. The driving force .s the thermal energy of the mantle . Earth's Internal Heat There are two categones of the internal heat sources of the Earth: a. Primordial heat : heat from accretion and bombardment of the Earth during the easy stages of formation b. Radioactive heat : the heat generated by long-term radioactive decay; its main sources are the four long-lived isotopes (large naif-life), namely K-40, Th-232, U-235 and U-238 that made a continuing neat source over geologic time The Earth has three main layers: the crust or the outermost layer, the mantle or the middle layer, and the are or the innermost layer. a. The crust is composed of solid rocks and minerals. It holds all known life forms on Earth. b. The mantle is made up of mostly solid rocks and minerals but have areas of semi-solid magma. c. The core is made up of dense metal, specifically, nickel and iron. It is also considered as the center and the nottest part of the Earth. Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is tmnsferred from the core to the crust. The temperature of the mantle vanes depending whether it is near the crust or near the boundary of the core. The prinfipal contributors to the heat of the core come from the decay of radioactive elements and from the heat of the molten outer are wnicn solidifies near the inner core. What causes convection current in the mantle? Convection currents are mainlV caused by a very hot material fmaq ma) present in the deepest part of the mantle which rises upwards, then sinks, again and again, repeating the same process of heating and rising. Earth's heat budget drives most of the geological processes on Earth. This measures the flow of thermal energy aming from the core, passing througn the mantle, and up to the atmosphere, which is mainly due to the mantle convecton. Tnis, however, is counteracted by the solar radiation Co •' mon esse stress is caused by two plates no 'ing together or fry one plate pushing against another plate that is not mo' iiJg. Tensions I stress is the opposite of conJpressional stress. It occurs '/.'hen one part of a plate rroves a'/.'o\', for example, and another port does not no've. •' Shear stress is produced 'w'hen ’o plates slide past each other or one plate slides past another plate that is not w’orkiiJg. Fracture * Since the pressure and temperature are for’ at the Earth's surface, rocks tend to break or fracture '/.'hen subjected to conJpressional and tensional stresses. This means that the pressure exerted in the blocks of rocks exceeds the rock's intenJal streiJgbi. •' FraJur•s can either be a fault or a joint. A fault is a break in the rock <’here there is considerable movement on the fracture surface 'while a is a break '/.’here there is no considerable movement. Tyj›es of Fc‹ilt * There are two L.pes of faults. They’ can either be dip-slip or stnke-slip faults •' Di li f ults involve the vertical movement of the hlo-cks of rock. These novenX°iJts are descnhed bcsed on the direction of the motion of the hanging 'Hall '/.'ith respect to lfie footw'aII. A hangi iJg w’aII is the block of rock that rests on the fault plane 'while a footwall is the one beIo'a' the fault plane. ,., •' Dip-slip faults can either he a normal or a reverse fault. A normal fault is caused by tensional stress it is characterized b\’ the hanging 'roll naming do'/.'I ’ord w'ith respect to the foot'/.'all . A re'verse fault 'w'herein the hanging w’aII moves rip'a'ard, is formed h\' compressioiJal stress. •' St ik s f u t involves a honzontal nJo’venr=iJt of blocks of rock and is caus€ d b‘S’ shear stress. Fold Deep within the crust, where pressure and temperature are high, rocks are plastic-liKe; thus, they do not break but they tend to bend or fold. When rocks in this area are compressed, they become thicker. When rocks become thinner, they are pulled apart. Types of Fold When blocks of rock are bent upwards, they form anticline structures. SVnclines are faced when blocks of rock bend downwards. A slightly bent rock from the parallel undeformed layers forms monoclines. How Layers of Rocks Are Formed Most rocks are sedimentary rocks. They are formed from older rocks that have been broken down by water or wind. The older rocks become sedimentary panicles such as gravel, sand, and mud. These particles can also bury dead plants and animals. As time goes by, the particles accumulate, and those that are at the bottom of the pile become rocks. Gravel becomes conglomerate: sand becomes sandstone; and mud becomes shale or mudstone. The animals or plants buried with them become fossils. These series of events form the different layers of rocks. Methods to Determine the Age of Stratified Rocks There are two methods of determining the ages of rocks: relative dating and absolute dating. Relative Dating Relative datino is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence. It cannot provide actual numerical dates of rocks. It only tells that one rock is older than the other but does not tell how old each of the rock is. In the early mid-1600’s, a Danish scientist, Nicholas Stena , studied the relative positions of sedimentary rocks. He discovered that they settle based on their relative weight or size in a fluid. The largest or heaviest particles settle first, and the smallest or the lightest particles settle Iast. Any slight changes in the particle size or composition may result in the formation of layers called beds. Layering or bedding is a distinct quality of sedimentary rocks. The layered rocks are also called strata. Principles of Relative Dating The Law of Superposition states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the top layer is younger than the bottom layer. It is important in the interpretation of the Earth's history because it indicates the relative age of the rock layers and fossils. The Law of Original Horizontality states that most sediments were originally laid down horizontally. However, many layered rocks are no longer horizontal. Based on the law of original horizontality, the rocks that were tilted may be due to later events such as tilting episodes of mountain building. The Law of Lateral Continuity states that rock layers extend laterally or out to the sides. These layers may cover broad surfaces. Erosion may have worn away some parts of the rock, but the layers on either side of the eroded areas still match. The Law of Cross-Cutting Relationship states that fault lines and igneous rocks are younger features that cut through older features of rocks. La vv of Sriperpo sit ion 4 4 You. to g es t Young es t UIcl est Absolute Dating Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event. Absolute dating or radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks by measuring its radioactive decay. A radioactive isotope in the rock decays into a stable daughter isotope. The decay occurs at a predictable rate, so the age of the sample could be determined. Examples: Radiocarbon dating for organic remains could date up to 60 000 years. K-Ar dating and U- Pb dating for volcanic rocks could date up to five billion years. Rocks and fossils The history of the Earth is recorded in rocks but the rock record is inherently incomplete. Some of the "events" do not leave a record or are not preserved. Some of the rock record may have also been lost through the recycling of rocks (recall the rock cycle). What is a geologic hazard? A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to property and life as a result of a geological process such as earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide. Earthquake An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the release of energy from accumulated stress along the geologic faults or by volcanic activity. It may cause collapse of buildings, tsunamis, landslides, and ground-level changes. Earthquake hazards are events associated with an earthquake that may cause adverse effects on organisms and their environment. a. Ground shakinq refers to the vibration of the land surface during an earthquake. The intensity of the vibration depends on the magnitude of the earthquake and the distance from the epicenter. Ground shaking may cause partial or total collapse of buildings and structures. b. Ground displacement or surface rupture is the horizontal or vertical displacement of the ground surface along the fault zone. It affects smaller area compared to ground shaking. However, it severely damages buildings and structures located adjacent to the faults. C. Liquefaction is the transformation of solid rocks and soil to a liquid-like state during ground shaking. When it occurs, large rigid structures may tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. d. Tsunami is a set of long, high ocean waves caused by an earthquake or other di sturbance under the sea. It causes flooding and destruction of structures near the shorelines. e. Fire is caused by rupture of gas lines during ground shaking and displacement. It poses threat of explosions which may cause death and destruction of property. Example 1 On Cetober 15, 2013, a devastating earthquake happened in the province of Bohol. Its recorded magnitude was 72. The ground shaking and displacement caused major damage of several government buildings, century-old churches, schools, and houses. Over 150 casuallies have been recorded after the earthquake. Around 3 million families in Central Visayas have also been affected by the said earthquake. In fact, Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLGS) Director Renato Solidum said that its impact is almost equivalent to “32 Hiroshima bombs.” Example 2 With a 7.9 magnitude and almost 3,000 casualties, Moro Gulf earthquake in Mindanao which occurred in 1976 is officially the strongest_and deadliest earthquake in Philippine history. Almost 40, 000 people in Regions 9 and 12 were also left homeless by this tragedy. Volcanic Eruption ~ Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash, and gas are released from a volcano due to a buildup of pressure inside. The effects of an eruption can be on a local scale affecting the areas near the volcano (e.g. lava flow reaches nearby towns) or on a global scale (e.g. volcanic ash particles on air change global temperature). ¥ Volcanic eruption hazards are events associated with a volcanic eruption that may cause adverse effects on organisms and their environment. a. Lahar is a mixture of volcanic debris and water that flows at the slopes of the volcano. It destroys infrastructures, buries towns and crops, and fills river channels. b. Pyroclastic flow is 2 mass of hot, dry pyroclastic material (mixture of ash and dust) and hot gases. It moves rapidly along the ground surface. It buries towns and causes burns, injury, and damage upon impact. . Volcanic gases are vapors released during an eruption. Some of these gases, such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide, are poisonous. They cause respiratory damage and death. d. Tephra falls are rock fragments and lava blobs ejected by a volcano. They damage structures, break power lines, kill vegetation, and cause respiratory damage. Example 1 Mount Pinatubo erupted on June 15, 1991. This. eruption deposited about 5 km? of rock fragments and volcanic ash on the volcano’s slopes. The volcano spewed out 10 billion tons of magma and ash, and 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide. The resulting ash fall buried some parts of Pampanga under 10 feet of ash. When a heavy rain fell on that day, the rocks and ashes were washed down into the surrounding lowlands in large, fast-moving mudflows called lahar. Lahar caused more destruction in the lowlands than the eruption itself. When all of the ash came down, it desolated much of the province of Pampanga, burying 364 towns. Ash fall was recorded as far as. Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Cambodia. There was so much particulate in the atmosphere that it filtered out sunlight, cooling global temperatures by 0.5 degrees Celsius. Example 2 Last January 12, 2020, Taal Volcano located in the Province of Batangas erupted after almost 40 years of being inactive. According to the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), increasing steam aciivity was observed in at least five areas inside the main crater with frequent phreatic explosions that generated a steam laden tephra column reaching 10-15 km high. Volcanic Alert Level 4 (the second highest on a five-tier scale) was issued by PHIVOLCS which implied that hazardous. explosive eruption is possible within hours to days. More than 53,000 residents in the surrounding area of the volcano have abandoned their homes. Thousands have been evacuated following mandatory evacuation orders. Landslide Y & landslide, also called landslip, occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris, and soil) move downwards along a slope. It may be caused by earthquakes or heavy rainfall. It can also be aggravated by human activities such as deforestation, blasting, and construction. ¥ Landslide hazards are events associated with a landslide that may cause adverse effects on organisms and their environment @. Mud flow is the flow of mud and rock. It may pick up trees, houses, and cars as it moves down the slope. It may block bridges and tributaries causing flood along its path. b. Earthflow is the downward flow of fine-grained materials, such as clay, fine sand, and silt. It is slower than mudflow, but it inflicts the same damage. ec. Rock fz is the sliding, toppling, or falling of rocks along a slope. It disrupts road traffic in mountainous regions. When it hits a structure or vehicle, it causes damage depending on the size of the rock and the force of impact Deep-lc•cus earthquakes that are experienced in La Uni¢+i and Pangasinan are due to the Manila Treuch, while shalknv earthquakes in these areas together with Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, and Benguet are generally due to their location aI¢+ig the Philippine Fault Zoe. A!thrxJgh lfugao expeuenced fewer eai1fiquakes in the past, it is still very vulneralde to luture earthquakes. In addition, the size of the red dots indicates the magnitudes of the earthquakes that hit the aree for the past 30 years. For exarrgle, a large dot in Marila indicates that the magnikide of the ea1hquake is 7.3 to 7.6. On the other hand, a tiny dot, as seen in aieas aound Palawan, rreans that the rragnitude of earthquake is arc•und 5.5 to 6.2. Tsunami-Prone Areas The rrap above sh‹nvs the places ate+ig the coastal areas in the Philippnes that are prone to tsunarri hazards. Cyan, rragerita, and yellow lines indiate the potential of the tsunarri and the tsunami generators. When the earthquake occurs in the Philippines, then tsunami is locally generated. On the other hand, an earthquake that occurs outside bie country rroy he a foreign tsunami generator fof the Philipp+nes. * Locally generated tsunamis are rrore dangerous than those that are generated h'/ foreign or distant sources because they may reach a nearLy shore in few minutes. There may not be enough tirre for tsunami warning centers to issue a v.srning. People living near the coast with high nsk of locally ge berated tsunami must he alert when there is a reported earthquake in their area. They’ must observe unusual ocean changes and I1sten to loud ocean roafs. They must evacuate immediately 'when they sense these natural tsunami warning signs. * Majonty of the areas in Luzon (wibi the exception of Palawan and iJorthenJ islands) have a high tsunami potential with historJcnI tsunami records. Me an while, the coastal places in the Visayas region also show tsunami potenâal nostly from Ioca1 generators ’with a small percent of foreign generators. Furthermore, in the Mindanao region, high tsunami potential is also evident in the mainJand area while the small islands located in the southwest sho'w tsunami potentials by local ge Jerators. Map of the Distribution of Volcanoes Di s1r ibulioi1 of Vo Icalloes The map above shows the distribution of volcanoes all over the Philippines. These volcanoes are dassified as active (red), potentially active (orange), and inacâve (gray). Places where acbve and potentially acâve volcanoes are prone to hazards of volcanic activities or volcanic eruptions. For exarrqle, Mayou Volcano siMated in Albay in the Biod Regan, is known nd only fc+ its perfect cane, but also for its vdcanic activities. lt has 49 recorded erupôons as of 2013. The aeas surrounding the vdcano are LigNy alfected by valerie hazards. On the contrary, Palawan is rat vulnœabe to volcanic eruption hazarôs sinœ there are very lew volcæœs near the area and all of them are inactive. Earthquake-4nduced Shallow Landslides Map Earthquake- Induced Shallow Landslides Races that have landdide hazards are presented in the map above. The legend tells you the levels of the danger of the occurrence of landslide. For example, majority of the provinces in the Northern Luzon is considered a high-dancpr zone. These indude rrouritainc+is areas like Abra, Benguet, lfugao, Kalinga, and Mt. Province. On the other hand, Palawan shoals no present risk in landslides. •' Learn about the emergency response and evacuation plans for your area during a landslide •' When you suspect imminent landslide danger, cc+itact the emergency response team of your community immediately. Evacuate immediately and inform neighbors who might be at nsk. •' Consider relocation if lieing in on area vulnerable to landslides. During a LaiJdslide •' Stay alert and awake. Many landslide fatalities occur when people nre sleeping. •' Stay away from the path of any landslide hazards. If you suspect imminent danger. evacuate immediately •' If caught in n rock fall and escape is riot possible. roll into a ball to protect your head. After a Landslide •' Stay away from the landslide nrea. •' Listen to local radio for the latest errergency information. •' Check for injured or ITnpped persons near the landslide, wthou\ entenng Ifie aren. Direct the rescuers to their Mentions. •' Replant the damaged ground ns soon ns possible to avoid landslides in lfie fuMre. Human Activities that Trisser Landslides •' Clearruftinq is o method done by logging companies \o cut down every marketable Fee from n selected area to harvest timber. Deforestation or removal of trees that hold water and topsoil may couse landslides •' flash-and-bum or kainqin system is a method that cuts down nnd bums off the existing vegetation. It is a form of deforesMtion because the land is converted to other uses. •' Mining nnd quarrying operations use explosives in their blasting techniques to break rocks and gather ore deposits. They couse land areas to slide due to the vibrations from the blast. •' Construcâon activities such as building of roads and railways may interfere or change the natural drainage of water. When there is heavy rainfall or flood, water may then move to a diflerent path which may saturate slopes and cause landslides. Ways to Lessen the Occurrence of Landslides •' Ins\end of clearcutting, solocbvo cutting can be adopted by logging companies to allow old trees to remain. This rriethod cuts down mefure or inferior kind of bees to encourage the growth of lfie remaining trees in the forest. •' Do allev-cropping instead of sInsh-and-bum method. Alley—cropping is a method of simultaneously growing an ngriculfural crop vrJth a tree crop, retaining soil fertiliy. •' Plant morn trees with strong root structures that hdd the soil together. •' The government must set mining ruIns based on the evaluation of slope stnbiliy nnd landslide thrent in the mining areas. Mining corrganies must fdlow these rules. In case of disobedience, temporary or perwcnen\ suspension of mining operators must be implemented ^ Avnid construction on steep slopes As this is not entirely possible, evaluation of the aren for land development should be performed by engineers and geologist. Construct pmper drninago away from the slope \o control ter accumuIa\ion nnd \o nvoid slope instability. During cons\rucbon, do not odd an unnecessary weight of fill materials to avoid overloading. Also, check broken or looking Apes because overacturañon of sql with wa\er can tngger landslides. Hydrometeorological Hazard H v drometeoroloqicalhazards are processes of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Examples are tropical cyclones, monsoon rains (h abagat and amihan), tornado, ipo-ipo and floods. Tropical Cyclone / Typhoons A tropical cyclone or typhoon is a rapidly rotating low-pressure system that forms over tropical oceans. It is called typhoon in the Philippines. The typhoons entering the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) are given a local name by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Ad ministration (PAGASA). This agency monitors and disseminates information about weather disturbances. *^ PÎCIil Cyclone Hazards •• Tropi owl cyclones or typhoons Liring about hazards that may cause adverse effects on o nisrns and th eir environme nt. a. A flood is nn ove+flow of wuter over a no Ily dry land. Due to heavy rainfall brought by a Typhoon, the waler levels in dams nnd nvefs increase. The waler Ifien overflows to nearby land areas. A flood can damage houses, buildings, and bridges. Flash flood, which is a sudden, rapid flooding, any cause drowning and fntaI injunes. b. A strong suntninnd wind is often brought by a Typhoon. It can damage or destroy vehicles. buildings. bridges, fields, and plantations. c. A landslide is the rrioverrient of a moss of rocks, soil . and debns down a slope. lt can be triggered by heavy rainfall. d. A storm surge is an ahno I rise of sea voter due to a phcon. It is created when wafer is being pushed toward the shore by the force of fhe minds moving in a circular manner. It ravages beeches and coastal nreas. Example Super Typhoon Yolande (Intematonal name Hniyan) was one of the rnosl powerful typhoons ever recorded. It caused massive destrucbon in the Philippines on November 9, 20 l3. Strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges caused widespread damage to properties and loss of lines. Ahout 6.000 people died and 28,000 were injured because of the typhoon. Monsoon A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing vñnd in the South nnd Southeast Asia. It brings a diPerenl kind of weather depending on where it comes from. When it bows from the southwest between Mny and September. it brings rainy weather. V\’hen it blows from the northeast between October and Apnl, it brings dry weather. In the Philippines. Ifie southwest rronsoon brings nbout heavy rainfall. Ado nsooil Hazards A monsoon may bri ng about the same huzo rd s caused by a Typhoon. It may cause heavy rainfall, strong v ind. landslide, nnd flood. a. Heavy rainfall and strong wind can damage residential and industrial buildings. It can also destroy ngricuIturoI crops. A landslide may happen when the soil becornes saturated with wnter due to heavy rainfall. The soil and rocks from the slope can move down and destroy many properties along the woy. c. A flood any occur due to henvy rainfall th at saturates the soil and causes nn overflow of wnter to dry Innd nreas. Example On August 1 to 8. 2012, the south'west noiJsooiJ (Habagat) Caused L.'phoon-like damage in Metro Manila and nearh‘S’ proviFlces. Hea•°S’ rainfall caused the Mankina River to over1lo'w, triggered a landslide. and caused the collapse of raads and fridges. The flads and rain left 9fi people dead and damaged 8,000 houses. lpo-ij›o •' 4iJ 'oo-'oo \tnriJado) is a violentl .' spinning '/.'ind on land that appears like a funnel-shaped cloud. It can destro‘S' large buildings, uproot trees, and hurt vehicles. lpo-lpo Hozar‹l * The strong '/.'hinting mind can lift and hurt oLi•cts it encounters no matter how' hea•\’ the ohject is. It Causesdestruction of houses, buildings. dane. and hndges. The lifted objects nia‘S’ also Cause injunes and death upon impact. Excmj›le Four '/.'ater sprouts \ipo-ipo) w'ere spotted hovering over the ’wters of Laguna de Ba‘S' last Ma‘S’ 30. 2020. According to the National Geographic SocietS’, a 'wterspout is a cdumn of rotaânq. cloud-filled '/.Ind. A '/.'aterspout descends front a cunJulus cloud to an ocean or a lake. '/.'ater spouts form over hodies of '/.'ater ’when there are severe thunderstorn\s and uSuaII‘S' Comes ’with strong '/.1nds. Thankfull .', no one wos injured dunng the said phenomenon. Hydrometeorological Hazard May› •' A h’,’drornetenroInqicaI hozard map is a map indicoâng the areas that are vulnerable to hazards Caused h.' tropical c\’cIoiJes, flads, and ipo-ipo. Recall that in stud‘SJFIg a hozard map, ‘S'Ou have to Flote the title, source, legend. and s‘S’FFIboIs. They’ guide .'ou in understanding the information presented h.' the map. Risk to Typhoons Map * A trnpi€:aI r.'clone (also called b•*9kO in the Philippines) is the geiJenc term for an‘S’ iFltensecirculating '/.'eather s.'stent over tropical oceans. H'’heiJ it onginates from the Pacific Ocean, it is called a I'.'phoon. It may' bring about hazards such as hea•°S’ Rainfall.sSoiJg '/.'ind, flood, and landslide. * The Philippines is located on the '/.'esteriJ rim of the Pacific Ocean, an acâve area for I'.'phoon formation hecause of the last expanse of deep. w'arm ocean w'ater. Because of its location, the CountrS’ expenencesan average of 20 L.'phoons per‘S’€•ar, ahout nine of them make landfall. Aside front its location. it is also comprised of nore than 7000 islands. so there are plenL.' of caasts and shorelines that could be directl.' hit h.' strong w'inds and heavy rainfall. •' Because the Philippines is hit b‘S’ FI\an‘S’ tS’phoons in a \’ear. it is important to study’ which areas in the CountrS’ ate at high nsk. Below’ is the map of the countrs’ along ’with the colors indicating the level of risk to typhoons. Flood Fkoding is the overflowing of water on normally dry land. It has heen one of the oostliest disasters in terws of darroge to property and loss of life. The rrost common cause of death associated with head is drowning. Before the Flood Create a farrily disaster plan. Designate a contact person who can be reached and discuss where you will meet if farrily members are separated. •' Closely rrx›nitor weather reports for inforrrotion on the possibility of flooding. IdenlJly a safe place for evacuation and alternative routes that are not pione to flooding. •' If a flash flood warning is issued in your area, evacuate to a safe place imrrediately. •' If flood alert is issued in your area, rrove valuables and furniture to higher levels and disconnect electncal appliance. Prepare md erœrgency Ñt and supplies like food and water. During the Flood •' If you see any signs of flood, turn off the main source of electncity and go to a higher place such as the second flcor or attic. •' Do not wade along flooded areas to keep yourself from having water-borne diseases. •' In case you need to pass through the flood, wear protective gears such as hoots and raincoats. Fdlow any evocuaéon orders. •' Watch out for live wires or any electrical ow0et submerged in water. •' If you are inside a vehicle and water rises aiound it, leave it immediately. Climh to highe ground as quickly as possible. •' If you see sorrx=one falls œ is trapped in hood water, do not go afte the victim. Throw the vicGm a flœtaéon deviœ such as tire, large ball, œ ice chest. Then ask help from a trained rescuer. After the Flood •' Ï-lave an electrician inspect your house widngs and electrical out!ets before using them. •' Clean up your house. Dispose of things that may be used by rrosquitoes to breed like water vase and anything that can hold stagnant water. •' Boil water before dnnking because it may have been contarrinated. •' Do not go or return to flooded areas until the authonties soy that it is safe to do lpo-ij›o * Ipo-ipo creates havoc — teaniJg ofi roofs, uproolJiJg trees, damaging power lines nnd sending flying dehns everywhere. Before an lpo-ij›o •' Know fhe snfe places where you can hide when there is an ipo-ipo. The safest pInce is underground. If your house does not have a basement, a small room in the middle of the house away from the windows is best. •' Pay akeiJtion to weather reports nbout fhe possible occurrence of an ipo-ipo. Fnmilinnze yourself with the warning sign. /\n ipo-ipo is often nccompnnied by strong typhoons. Wntch out for douds that begin to rotate in n ñrcular pnltem. •' Create n family disaster plan. Designate n contact person who can be reached and discuss where you will meet if family members are separated. •' Prepare nnd emergency kit and make sure fhat there is nn ample supply of food nnd water. During an lj›o-ipo If you are inside a house, move to n safe plnce. Get under n steady piece of furniture, such as a heavy tnble. Hold onto it and protect your head. If you are inside a vehicle, get out and seek a snfe shelter. If you are outdoors and there is no shelter to hide, lie down in n low nrea with your h ands over your head nnd neck. Always watch out for flying debns. If you are inside a high-nse building, move to n room on the lowest floor. After an lpo-ipo Check yourself for injuries. Check for injured or trapped persons. Help if you can, hut do iiot rrove them unless they are in immediate danger of further injury. H'ear protectve gears when walking and working Through the debns. Coastal Processes * sC talkse s are naturally-occurnng pro-cesses thnt bnng alteralJoiJs to the coastal zones. They are internclJons of mnnne, physical, meteorological, gedogical, and biological events. Ti‹les •' Tides nre temporary f!uctunfioiJs in see levels due to gravitational forces hetweeiJ the sun, fhe rrooiJ, and the earth. They carry less energy to the coasts hut occur rrore often thnn waves. High tides occur when water levels nre at their highest while low tides occur when water levels are nt fheir lowest. * Low-lying locaâons get submerged in seawater duniJg high tide leading to suhmersioiJ. Repented exposure of The caasts to submersion can loosen materials and cause erosion in the loiig run. Sea Level Rise * Foster sea level rise has been observed in the recent ‘S’€•ars. This is due to the w'arming of the sea and melting of glaciers. The nse in sea level has becom nore pern\aiJent. This '/.'arming of the sea and melting of glaciers are due to enhanced greenhouse effect brought ahout h\’ carbon emissions front various human activities. Islands and even some countries are in danger of being submerged underw'ater if the sea levels continue to increase. Sea level changes threaten Ion’- I.'ing areas to experience suhnX°rsioiJ permaiJeiJtl'.'. Storm Srirge * Storm surge occurs alien the ‘/.'ind front tropical c\’cIoiJes cause sea w'ater levels to be unusually’ higher than high tide levels. It can go as high as 20 feet or rrore ahome the normal sea level. It is rrore likely’ to occur on coasts ’with gentle slopes than those ’with steep slopes. * Sonde locations expeneiJce suhniersioiJ dunng stornJ surge, wfiich is not expenenœd dunng high tides. ErosioiJ is also more likel .' to happen hecause of the additional actions of '/.'aies du nng stornJ surge. Inland grouiJd’water sources expenence saIt/.'ater intrusion. This happeiJs '/.’hen the sea'/.'ater reaches the caasDl areas and gets into grouiJd’water and other fresh'wter resources. Crustal Movement * Continents and landmasses have been fomied and continuousI‘S’ Shapedb\’ the rro•erneiJt of tectonic plates. These plates rro•e because of the accumulated ssess ‘within the Earth's crust releasing €•nerg‘S’ aFId forming difierent landrnasses. Coastal areas can he changed h‘S’ the rro•erneiJt of these plates. • Cnistal rro•erneiJts can couse erosion, subnersion. and saltwter intrusion along aasts. Its major €•ffectis erosion followed h‘S’ sUhnX°rsioiJas a subsequent efiect. It can also cause Io’w-I.Aug areas and islands adjacent to oceans or seas to sink. Saltwater nia‘S’ also €•nter fresh'/.'ater basins if crustal movements '/.'ould cause cracks in the caastlines. Coastal Erosion •' Coastal erosion is the w'eanng aw’a‘S’ of the land h.' the sea and is done h‘S’ destructive '/.'aces. * File comnon processes that cause coastal erosion: a. ?orrasir'n is ’when '/.'aces pick up beach materials and hurl them at the base of a cliff. h. Abrasion happens ‘when breaking '/.'aces containing sediment fragments erode the shoreline. particularly’ headland. It is also referred to as the sand paper effect. c. dra c ct o . The effect of wo•es as they’ hit clifi faces. the air is compressed into cracks and is released as ‘/.'aces rushes back sea'wrd. The compressing and releasing of air as '/.'aces presses cliff faces and rushes hack to sea w’iII cause clifi material to break a'/.'a\’. d A0ritir'n is the process alien w’a•es bump rocks and pehhles against each other leading to the eventual breaking of the materials. e. ? O rrnsinn/solution involves dissolution b‘S’ ‘/.'Oak acids such as ’when the carhoiJ dioxide in the atnosphere is dissolved iinto w'ater turning it into a '/.'eak carbonic acid. Se feral rocks (e.g. linestone) are vulnerable to Ihis acidic '/.'ater and '/.'ill dissolve into it. The rate of dissolution is affected h\’ the concentration of carbonates & other minerals in the ’water. As it increases. dissolution hecomes slower.