Historical overview of the Print Media, Summaries of Anglo-American Culture

Download Historical overview of the Print Media and more Summaries Anglo-American Culture in PDF only on Docsity! 33. The print media the media = countryʼs third largest industry in terms of advertising revenue HISTORY 1. Colonial period books and newspapers where the first media to emerge due to a need for news 1638: printing press set up in Cambridge, Massachussets increase of book production <> print media controlled by British colonial authorities licensing system 1690: first newspaper in Boston Benjamin Harris (ʻPublick Occurences both Foreign and Domestickʼ) = banned for not having a license 2. 18th century newspapers gained readership and influence - fought licenses and responded to political events ʻNew England Courantʼ (Boston 1721) = first newspaper (as tool in the fight for independence) magazines were later in emerging - to fulfill middle-class wish for entertainment Andrew Bradford ʻAmerican Magazineʼ (1741) = first one social role grew and expanded along with the growth of the territory press and print shops set up > books on laws, newspapers and magazines quality decline after War of Independence propaganda tools for political parties First amendment to the Bill of Rights 1791 > freedom of press: press had been a unifying force in the War of Independence attempts at great objectivity - to obtain and retain readers - 1800: about 20 dailies and 1,000 weeklies in local areas 3. 19th century Further growth in print media • become influental and cultural forces • increase in literacy rates expansion of schools and libraries growing demand for books, other printed materials (mass market of readers) • development of high speed printing presses new magazines and newspapers founded book market increased (strong demand for novels (women!), paperback introduction) Newspapers as genuine mass medium • become cheap • run by powerful and influential individuals • using of new publishing methods • The New York Herald (1835) by James Gordon Bennett = USʼs first modern newspaper • Bennett revolutionized news reporting: employed reporters, foreign correspondents, observers in Washington + telegraph use to get news out first • New York Tribune (1841) by Horace Greeley • New York Times (1851) by Henry Raymond late 19th century struggle for bigger circulation figures fierce rivalry between: • Joseph Pulitzer (Hungarian immigrant): The New York World • William Hearst: The New York Journal this rivalry lead to • yellow journalism sensational news • birth of Sunday papers, comic strips and cartoons • mass circulation newspapers that depended on advertising and appealed to the reader with multiple forms of news entertainment advertising •E.W. Scripps was the first to found a newspaper chain (1889) newspapers and print media main source of communication journalism was big business now maximize profits 4. 20th century • personal ownership continued • number of dailies declined • first tabloid founded in 1919: New York Daily News (Joseph Patterson) • foundation of the Chicago Tribune in 1910 (Robert McCormick) • owners realized objective reporting attracted more readers • newspapers became more conservative because became most important income of papers (so wish to please or not shock the advertisers) population divided into class, income and age groups • open market (no restrictive laws on selling and prices) • 2,500 major publishes • 6 conglomerates account for 50% • worldwide export 34. The audio-visual media General points The FCC • all radio and television stations need to have a license by the FCC (Federal Communications Commission members appointed by president) to broadcast so there is a variety of programs and services • BUT: no censorship on broadcasting content The Nielsen ratings • audience measurement systems - determines audience size and composition of TV programs Watchdogs on the national media watchdog on the national media • Fairness and Accuray in Reporting (FAIR) = liberal/progressive • Accuracy in Media (AIM) = conservative TELEVISION most important, most controversial source of news • influence public opinion and consumer choice • TV stations: 4/5 commercial 4 big private broadcasting networks - ABC, CBS, NBC, FOX • local stations as well • buy programs from independent production companies • highest audience ratings and advertising revenue • CBS, NBC and ABC of greatest influence (= the older networks) nationwide entertainment programs + news non-commercial sector • = non-profitable • = run by organizations such as universities and colleges • e.g. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) (add free television) independent, cable and satellite TV competition for the big 3 • gained larger audiences thanks to the expansion of quality and services cable - originally for subscribers who could not receive air broadcast (geographical limitations) - nowadays many different types of schemes, systems and programs e.g. TBS Superstation, Discovery Channel, ESPN (Sports) - ethnic cable channels catering for African, Latino, Jewish, Korean, Japanese, Greek etc. Satellite • originally for those who could not receive cable (in rural areas) • subscribers could pay for a range of channels attitudes towards commercial TV a) commercial and mass-entertainment programs are designed to make a profit (advertising) raises questions about the quality of such programs, particularly regarding news • they can cover certain events in a way they can reflect their (political) bias news has a strong impact: can be used to influence public opinion <> on the other hand: in-depth documentaries and political analysis e.g. close-examination of politicians b) criticism for showing violence and explicit sex scenes now controlled by late viewing and v-chip technology Networks and advertisers increasingly aware of viewers opinions THE RADIO unified the population + increased awareness of numerous items competition between mainly commercial radio stations • about 10,000 commercial stations • competing with TV stations • various formats and specialities (24 hour service) no real national radio • independent national radio stations (regulated by the FCC: the Federal Communications commission) • non-commercial stations run by institutions and religious groups high reputation National Public Radio (NPR) GENERAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE MEDIA low level of confidence • inaccurate, subjective, out of touch with average Americans • yet people are more critical towards politicians • companies are commercial but have to provide publisher what it wants • general concern about the levels of violence shown in the media 35. Religion in the USA from beginning till c. 1900 Colonial period settlers from many religions > based on different types of European Christianity were dissenters(andersdenkenden) who fled Europe to practice their religion without persecution • new communities • ideal ʻcity upon a hillʼ Religion was central to and influenced people’s daily and commercial lives first colonists Christian Protestants influenced US society (e.g. work ethic for economy) BUT also in US conflicts between different religions: 17th century: Anglican Church in Virginia taxed Dissenters, banned Quakers, arrested Baptist ministers allowed others (French Huguenots, German Protestants, Scots-Irish Presbyterians) New England 2 groups of Calvinist settlers 1. Pilgrims (Plymouth - Massachussets) 1620 - own church, separate from Church of England (disapproved the Church’s doctrine) 2. Puritans, Massachussets Bay 1630 - wanted to purify the Church of England both groups were intolerant to other religions expelled them from their areas believed God had predestined specific individuals to achieve salvation Puritan (Protestant) work ethic - Hard work as a means of pleasing God prosperity as a sign that he had regarded them favourably considered a conditioning factor in a general American ambition for material success diversity in middle colonies (Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Delaware) Protestant groups settlements: Welsh and Dutch Calvinists Scottish Presbyterians Swedish and German Lutherans Baptists English Quakers Maryland Protestants and Roman Catholics • haven for Catholics (Lord Baltimore) • religious toleration for all Christians toleration ended in 1692 due to Puritan pressure during the English civil war Catholics first Catholics who arrived outside original 13 colonies (16th century) - missionaries from Spain, Portugal and France Established churches and missions in South and West (Texas, Florida, New Mexico, California) Jews traders - settled in English colonies (despite official ban on Jewish immigration) - mainly Newport, Rhode Island - also New York, Charleston, Philadelphia 36. Religion in the USA in the 20th century 20TH CENTURY Increasing variety with new immigrants • Europe • Asian (Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism) • Jewish immigrants (fleeing persecution in Europe) • Eastern Orthodox churches • Latin-America some retained own languages and customs and formed tightly knit communities strong ethnic identities who became distant from many Americans => intolerance against these newcomers three major faiths religious pluralism different religions living next to one another, not mixed. ecumenism aimes at closer relations between faith (greater Christian unity) Dominant Protestant majority promoted basic nationalism - but kept distrusting other religions But change 1950s three major faiths - Protestant, Catholic, Jewish shared American religious life with many other churches, groups, sects => more tolerance and more cooperative social action vs. spiritual renewal (some churches stress the first, other put emphasis on the latter) social action stresses religion’s public role • campaigns for social change, welfare services • debates on social problems and moral concern (poverty, Vietnam, racial inequality, refugees, same-sex relationships, educational issues, abortion) spiritual renewal stresses personal commitment and simple faith > evangelical and fundamentalist groups within Protestantism - close reading and literal interpretation of the Bible • traditional and orthodox in a strict maintenance of their beliefs • importance of salvation • reject Darwinism (creationism) • reject new interpretations of the Bible and ʻcorruptʻ forms of modern life • suspicious of social actions and oppose liberalizing trends • emphasize fundamental beliefs and fellowship Christian groups have become a powerful force in the USA in recent decades - much media - popular attention - strong growth However some churches collapsed due lack of support or due to scandals (role of media preachers: preacher who eventually were involved in scandals or ripping people off) Post WWII: changes and revival • influence Protestant churches declined • increasing pluralism, move towards evangelism • increase of people practicing eastern religions (Hinduism, Buddhism) • majority still members of Judeo-Christian faiths (christendom met joodse elementen er in gemixt) biggest religions mid-20th century: Protestants (mainstream and evangelical) Roman Catholics (conservative and liberal) Jews (orthodox and reformed) Islam 4th major faith in the US other groups: Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism GENERAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS RELIGION NOWADAYS CHURCH,STATE AND POLITICS RELIGION AND EDUCATION GENERAL ATTITUDES 1. Church, state and politics church & state supposed to be separate 1st Amendment to Bill of Rights (1791) • forbids creation national church (Congress canʼt make law respecting religious establishment) • protects individuals right to practice their faith (Congress shall not prohibit free exercise of it) • 1st Amendment doesnʼt apply to states (only federal government) • 14th Amendment ʻalso states must protect and guarantee rights of religionʼ No state interference in religious practice - no church taxes (so self-dependent), no religious holidays, no political parties tied to a certain denomination- religious groups self-supporting (build own churches, schools, finance own ministers) BUT they did interfere in the past e.g. prohibitions against Catholics or Jews in ‘20s (couldn’t vote or hold public office) religious impact on society • public and private life are not considered inseparable • religious diversity has impact on public and political debates (like e.g. abortion) civil religion/ the sensibility to religion is reflected in • a set of national symbols (US seal e.g.) • the president often belongs to religious group BUT Presidentʼs religion of little impact • speeches often ended with ‘God bless America’ 2. religion and education teaching about religion supposed to be neutral without promoting sth • balance between religious freedom and separation of religion and state sometimes difficult (e.g. religious holidays, religious dress,…) • (colonial period: Protestantism dominant so morning prayers etc.) • battle over school curriculums between fundamentalists and modernizers in the school boards • public schools civil religion (but no morning prayers) • private schools run by churches debate: should they be funded? usually rejected by education boards ATTITUDES TO RELIGION • majority considers religion as personally significant BUT personal belief is more popular these days than to be part of a church or community confidence in organized religion decreased still a large minority of people believing in - creationism - The Bible taken literally - the virgin birth of Maria 37. Primary and secondary education in the USA people and states have power over education (10th Amendment) states set up independent school districts for each district: an elected local board of education to make most decisions about primary and secondary education. generally • kindergarten (5-year olds) • elementary school (6 to 12) • middle school (13 to 15) • high school (16 to 18) also variants of general education structure: nursery school till 4 or 5 kindergarten till 6 and then: a. 6+2+4 - 4/5 is ran by religious groups (mostly Catholic) - other 1/5 have (almost) secular(= niet godsdienstig) - college-preparatory boarding schools for the elite qualified faculties to help children to get students admitted to prestigious universities - finances (dependent on:) private donates, investments fee-paying students public funding: only 10% of government support spended to private schools pupils in general supported, but not the institutions - exclusivity whites turned to private schools when segregation ended Court has banned religious instruction in public schools some turn to private education 38. Higher education in the USA GENERAL POINTS Selection system = decentralized, diverse, competitive: institutions set their own criteria and therefore choose their own student body reflecting the character the institution Almost all universities and colleges let students take the Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT) (=an entrance examination) reasons: • no nationally designed and evaluated examinations to get high school diploma • great variation in programmes and quality of secondary schools (localism) => difficult to evaluate an applicant’s academic level + every university has admissions departments visit and evaluate secondary schools, interview applicants, review application forms regional accrediting bodies monitor quality of secondary schools and higher education’s institutes Also in higher education, you have public and private institutions: PUBLIC SECTOR national military academies state university systems (50) local technical or specialty schools community colleges city universities technical or specialty schools training to specific occupations (e.g. accounting) cover rapid changes in technology community colleges courses covering usual requirement for the 2 first years of college after that they can graduate with an Associate in arts degree (lowest post- secondary academic degree) or transfers into third year of a full college to go for a Bachelor’s Degree Community colleges are run by local authorities who also offer shorter programs suited to the occupational needs of the local area (studeren dan korter om snel de noden van de eigen streek te leren kennen om daar te gaan werken) many of their students are mature adults who study part-time (favours public opinion of local control of education) state universities • main campus that maintains higher overall standards reputations that equal those of elite private universities (Harvard) • 4/5 prefers public over private institutions because tuition is much less (for state or city residents) • location is also an important factor • often 2 university systems per state: one for more applied studies, one for more academic work (the more prestigious jobs) PRIVATE SECTOR keyword = quality - institutions have little difficulty finding fee-paying students because of different programs they offer to students they want - 1/3 of the recruits among poor, minority and foreign groups offer them help in form of remedial courses • institutions remain relatively small (only 1/10 gets accepted) => quality education(applications rarely turned down because of finances) + the ideal of special community of learning • students live on campus • relatively few students per teacher to encourage close contacts PUBLIC/PRIVATE some institutions are common to both public and private higher education liberal arts college = most important example - 4 years • attended by about 2/3 of the students • basic courses in a broad range of humanities and science do not specialize till the third year undergraduate education • BA (Bachelor of Arts) or BSc (Bachelor of Science) • liberal arts degree required to enter graduate schools: may be professional schools (e.g. medical school) or advanced liberal arts schools with master degrees (MA or MSc) and doctorates (PhD) = internationally famous centres of research • competitive examination to be admitted: • entrance test (professional schools) or graduate record exams (GREs) in liberal arts subjects 39. Leisure and sports in the USA GENERAL POINTS • a lot of diversity in different sports < mixed origins of sports (and leisure e.g. music) • sports and arts seen as a way towards self-development also for ethnic minorities it has been a way to break through discrimination (AA involved in football, basketball, sprinting, influence on jazz, blues and other music) SPORTS till mid 20th - relatively isolated from national and international events - provincial and minority image - gave Americans team identification + relief pressures of everyday life now - reflects national condition - issues associated with both amateur and professional sports international competition prestige sex discrimination labor-management relations racism power of TV ads gambling/corruption drug abuse sports = multi-billion dollar business (criticism: other areas of social life important too) Popular American sports • American Football (NFL) Super Bowl finals (autumn) • Baseball (MLB) (spring and summer) • Basketball (NBA) + Ice Hockey (NHL) (indoors, winter ) • horseracing • greyhound racing • increasing interest in soccer (MLS= soccer competition: Major League Soccer) increasing popularity • rivals baseball as sport of young suburban families • very little spectator violence big business • huge media interest at all levels cable stations (such as ESPN) 50s - 60s 1.collage-type painting • variety of ordinary objects to produce works of mixed media • (Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns) 2.Pop art - everyday items of consumer society and popular culture to reflect and comment on what they saw as distinctive features of modern America • making the ordinary iconic (Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein) 3.Artists continue to experiment till today - created a number of exotically named artistic movements (e.g. ‘op art’, ‘graffiti art’, ‘performance art’) - refusal to be trapped by styles: the definitions, philosophies and existence of art often ironically challenged by postmodernist work MUSIC early 20th century classical music influenced by European composers and styles: George Gershwin + Aaron Copland combined these European sounds with distinctive American elements commercial music in America ragtime derived from the rural blues tradition of African American folk songs and church music popularized by Scott Joplin blues jazz music with a slow sad sound created by African Americans (southern states) to express their sadness about their experience Mississippi John Hurt was an influential country blues singer and guitarist jazz • inspired by blues and ragtime • America ʻmost original and native music formʼ from African and southern cultures • fluid, improvised, rhythmic • Louis Armstrong was a jazz trumpeter and singer (from New Orleans - Duke Ellington: jazz composer and pianist who was also a big band leader - Miles Davis country and western • based on folk songs traditions of early Scottish, Irish and English settlers • poor white music from the South - guitar, banjo or fiddle - Hank Williams • Nashville as hometown for country folk • also based on Scottish, Irish and English folks ballads • working class, rural areas • Woody Guthrie Americanised the original folk music • Bob Dylan blended folk with rock mainstream popular • European styles combined by African American rhythms an themes - classic American songs • Frank Sinatra • Barbra Streisand Rock and roll • combination of African American rhythm and blues and white country and western - very popular - influenced pop music - very commercialized now • Jimi Hendrix, Elvis Presley, Bruce Springsteen further developments R&B, soul, funk, rock, rap, hip hop, mainstream pop etc. FILM Early 20th century- mid 20th century start of the film industry - started on the East Coast, but later moved to LA (Hollywood) - motion film (silent, later with sound) very popular - films reflected American culture later - profits became bigger and more and more important - successful: Westerns, Gangster films, comedies, musicals Late 20th century film industry has changed: - Mergers 1930’s: 8 big companies formed e.g. Warner Brothers, Paramount - 1970s-1980s: conglomerates take over studios + increasing competition independent film production companies - production of movies has declined budgets increased competition - influence of television (soaps, programs) innovations necessary e.g. 3D - streaming and internet DVD sale declined 8. The Revolution and Indepedence 1733 • 13 English colonies along the Atlantic Coast French Canada and Louisiana • Several French-British wars during the 18th century: North-America always dragged because also war in the colony then of course 1763 Peace of Paris (Britain had defeated France) England gained control over Canada and all of North America east of the Mississippi Royal Proclamation western territory beyond Appalachian frontier reserved for NAs end of colonisation expanding westward to win the NA over to their side. (settlers there infuriated) Acts at expense of the colonial self- government Sugar Act 1964 tax on import of sugar and rum from non-English areas Currency Act 1964 aimed to protect British merchants from being paid in depreciated (=gedevalueerd) colonial currency => acts are a serious burden to the colonial economy Stamp Act 1964 printed materials had to be on paper produced in London and carry a revenue stamp => aroused hostility of powerful groups in American population British colonists in America getting infuriated by now Sons of Liberty • secret organization to protest against acts (often through violent means) • slogan: “No taxation without representation” (colonists were not represented in British Parliament) (and to stop taxations they then had this organization) • forced custom agents to resign so that Stamp Act taxes were never collected • trade with the mother country fell sharply in the summer of 1765 Stamp Act Congress (Oct 1765) • 27 representatives from 9 colonies decided on a colonial opinion against parliamentary interference in their affairs: • “Taxes imposed on British colonists without their consent were unconstitutional”, they ruled • ʻtaxation without representationʻ colonies had no representation in the British Parliament The Boston Massacre British merchants felt the effects of the American boycott repeal(=afschaffen) of the Stamp Act and modification of the Sugar Act Declaratory Act 1766 Parliament declares its sovereignty over colonies ʻin all cases whatsoever’ Townshend Acts 1767 making taxes on American trade more efficient taxes on imported goods e.g. tea (but not on internal goods as said in the stamp act) The Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770) • less violent response on Townshend Act than with Stamp Act (people tried to use local products) • but: people attacked customs officials who were collecting taxes • Britain send two regiments to protect the customs officials • On March 5 a harmless snowballing of British soldiers ended in a mob attack British fired; 3 Bostonians were killed (mensen stonden in een cirkel rond soldaten sneeuwballen te gooien naar hen dus niet gewelddadig, maar een van de soldaten viel en men begon ineens te schieten) • Britain repealed all Townshend Acts (except tax on tea) huge victory for the colonists The Boston Tea Party • calm returned, but a few radicals kept controversy alive 7. The Establishment of the English 13 colonies The Structure of Colonial America SOUTH - economic colonies • great wealth that Spain acquired from his colonies provoked interest in the other parts of Europe: Humphrey Gilbert task from Queen Elizabeth I: colonize non-claimed ʻheathen(=heidens) and barbarous landsʼ • lost at sea Walter Raleigh took up the mission (half-brother) 1585 first British colony on Roanoke Island (off the coast of North-Carolina) quickly abandoned 1587 second attempt failed as well Virginia • 1607 - first permanent British settlement = Jamestown, Virginia • King James I didnʼt want to rule distant(=ver) colonies private companies permission to colonize America • ʻThe Virginia Companyʻ • unprepared and unequipped townsmen and adventurers left off captain John Smith held the colony together (anarchy when he left) • sought for gold + way to Asia but found tobacco plantations start with cash crops • colony expanded rapidly when settlers were offered free land • BUT nobody wanted to be a fieldworker African slaves to work on tobacco plantations - 1700: 75,000 white Americans + 10,000 African slaves North Carolina / South Carolina • Charles II granted 8 noble-men (Lord Proprietors) the area of Carolina • of the 8: Anthony Ashley Cooper took the most active interest • secretary and philosopher John Locke wrote never-ratified Fundamental Constitution of Carolina- government: governor, powerful Council (appointed by the Lord Proprietors) + weaker populary elected Assembly • 1653: Roguesʻ Harbor first permanent English settlement by emigrants from Virginia - 1665: second settlement: ʻClarendonʼ 1670: southern settlement settled under the LP Charleston (= seat of the government) this settlement developed faster (natural harbor + trade with West Indians) • north: wood, naval stores, tobacco <> south: naval stores, rice 1729: Carolina splits into due provinces due to diverse nature of economies Georgia last of the 13 colonies to be established • meant to give new opportunities to poor and former prisoners • close to Florida buffer against Spanish incursion NORTH - religious colonies New Hampshire 1623 - colonized by John Mason Massachussets The Pilgrim Fathers - separatists from the Church of England set out for Virginia, storm sent them to New England (1623 - ship ʻThe Mayflowerʼ) - settlement ʻPlymouthʼ • 1/2 died of lack of food an disease during the harsh winter • Next summer: Indians learnt them how to grow maize • celebration for the Indians and God Thanksgiving • Mayflower Compact: just and equal laws drafted by leaders of their own choosing: they believed themselves to be outside the jurisdiction of any organized government - 1630: new wave of immigrants well-educated middle-class people @ Massachussets Bay • nl. the Puritans (not separatist, wanted to purify Church of England) • John Winthrop wanted to show how English society could be reformed ʻcity upon a hillʼ • Charter (by Winthrop) authority for the colonyʼs government resided in Masschussets power with the General Court made up by ʻfreemenʼ members of the Puritan Church General Court elects the governor = significant role in the development of the New England region • 1640: new wave of immigration bay colony expanded widely • agriculture + forestry colony flourished • most homogeneous region in the colonies (because of intolerance to other religions) Rhode Island Roger Williams challenged the General Court (objected the seizure of Indian lands) banished from Massachussets Bay • 1636: purchased land from Indians (now Providence, Rhode Island) • first colony with separation of church and state + freedom of religion Connecticut 1635: Thomas Hooker found a new settlement = expansion of Massachussets New York • Dutch and Swedish outposts of fur trade grew into colonies New Netherlands (Hudson River) + New Sweden (Delaware River, annexed by New Netherlands) • 1664: annexed by English New York after the Duke of York • tolerant traditions started by the Dutch continued New Jersey • 1664: given to the Duke of York with the conquest of New York • Duke of York gave a part to George Carteret as settlement of a debt • named after island Jersey birthplace of Carteret • other part given to Lord John Berkeley • Berkeley and Carteret = English proprietors • granted land to settlers, but asked annual fees Delaware New Sweden, taken over by Dutch New Netherlands Dutch removed by British expedition under direction of the Duke of York Pennsylvania • Charles II granted the area to William Penn ( Pennsylvania) • religious refuge for Quakers and other religious English dissenters -> Amish, Baptists • already Dutch, English and Swedish settlers living there -> Philadelphia ʻCity of Brotherly Loveʼ • cheap land and religious freedom attracted some 12,000 people before 1690 • rights for women (was rare) • made sure Delaware Indians were paid for their land- diversity Maryland • established by Lord Baltimore as a haven for Catholics (Englandʼs most persecuted minority) - economy and population soon resembled Virginiaʼs Similarities - Differences Similarities • Founders of the states had fled from dictatorship, tyranny, and abuse of power/authority - wanted much more open sort of government colonies run by an elected governor (= democratic) Differences NORTH - RELIGIOUS GROUPS • industrial economy • each responsible for own wealth < Puritan mentality - Religious elite religion very important