Parts of speech - Notatki - Język angielski - Część 2, Notatki z Język angielski

Pobierz Parts of speech - Notatki - Język angielski - Część 2 i więcej Notatki w PDF z Język angielski tylko na Docsity! ? Will they be watching TV? USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Future Use the Future Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time. Examples:  I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.  I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.  I am going to be staying at the Madison Hotel, if anything happens and you need to contact me.  He will be studying at the library tonight, so he will not see Jennifer when she arrives. Notice in the examples above that the interruptions (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses. USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future In USE 1, described above, the Future Continuous is interrupted by a short action in the future. In addition to using short actions as interruptions, you can also use a specific time as an interruption. Examples:  Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner. I WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF EATING DINNER.  At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert. WE WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF DRIVING THROUGH THE DESERT. REMEMBER In the Simple Future, a specific time is used to show the time an action will begin or end. In the Future Continuous, a specific time interrupts the action. Examples:  Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to eat dinner. I AM GOING TO START EATING AT 6 PM.  Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner. I AM GOING TO START EARLIER AND I WILL BE IN THE PROCESS OF EATING DINNER AT 6 PM. USE 3 Parallel Actions in the Future When you use the Future Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will be happening at the same time. The actions are parallel. Examples:  I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner.  Tonight, they will be eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.  While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television. NOTICE "IS READING" BECAUSE OF THE TIME CLAUSE CONTAINING "WHILE." USE 4 Atmosphere in the Future In English, we often use a series of Parallel Actions to describe atmosphere at a specific point in the future. Example:  When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating. Some will be dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking beer. They always do the same thing. REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses Like all future tenses, the Future Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Continuous, Present Continuous is used. Examples:  While I am going to be finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Not Correct  While I am finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Correct AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Future. Examples:  Jane will be being at my house when you arrive. Not Correct  Jane will be at my house when you arrive. Correct ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples:  You will still be waiting for her when her plane arrives.  Will you still be waiting for her when her plane arrives?  You are still going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives.  Are you still going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives? ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples:  At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes. ACTIVE  At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John. PASSIVE  At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes. ACTIVE  At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John. PASSIVE NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Continuous are not common. 63. Future perfect tense – formation, meaning and usage. Future Perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and "be going to have done." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect forms are usually interchangeable.  You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.  Will you have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives?  You will not have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives. FORM Future Perfect Continuous with "Be Going To" [am/is/are + going to have been + present participle] Examples:  You are going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.  Are you going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives?  You are not going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives. NOTE: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" to create the Future Perfect Continuous with little or no difference in meaning. Positive sentences: Subject + Auxiliary verb + Auxiliary verb + Auxiliary verb + Present participle I/a dog etc. will have been going, doing (verb + ing) Negative sentences: Auxiliary verb + Subject + Auxiliary verb + Auxiliary verb + Present participle will I/a dog etc. have been going, doing (verb + ing) Questions (interrogative sentences): Subject + Auxiliary verb + Auxiliary verb + Auxiliary verb + Present participle ? I/a dog etc. won't have been going, doing (verb + ing) USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Future We use the Future Perfect Continuous to show that something will continue up until a particular event or time in the future. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Friday" are all durations which can be used with the Future Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous; however, with Future Perfect Continuous, the duration stops at or before a reference point in the future. Examples:  They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Thomas arrives.  She is going to have been working at that company for three years when it finally closes.  James will have been teaching at the university for more than a year by the time he leaves for Asia.  How long will you have been studying when you graduate?  We are going to have been driving for over three days straight when we get to Anchorage.  A: When you finish your English course, will you have been living in New Zealand for over a year? B: No, I will not have been living here that long. Notice in the examples above that the reference points (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because these future events are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses. USE 2 Cause of Something in the Future Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show cause and effect. Examples:  Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour.  Claudia's English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going to have been studying English in the United States for over two years. Future Continuous vs. Future Perfect Continuous If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Future Continuous rather than the Future Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Future Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Future Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the future. Study the examples below to understand the difference. Examples:  He will be tired because he will be exercising so hard. THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WILL BE TIRED BECAUSE HE WILL BE EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT MOMENT IN THE FUTURE.  He will be tired because he will have been exercising so hard. THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WILL BE TIRED BECAUSE HE WILL HAVE BEEN EXERCISING FOR A PERIOD OF TIME. IT IS POSSIBLE THAT HE WILL STILL BE EXERCISING AT THAT MOMENT OR THAT HE WILL JUST HAVE FINISHED. REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses Like all future forms, the Future Perfect Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect Continuous, Present Perfect Continuous is used. Examples:  You won't get a promotion until you will have been working here as long as Tim. Not Correct  You won't get a promotion until you have been working here as long as Tim. Correct AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Future Perfect . Examples:  Ned will have been having his driver's license for over two years. Not Correct  Ned will have had his driver's license for over two years. Correct ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples:  You will only have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives.  Will you only have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives?  You are only going to have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives.  Are you only going to have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives? ACTIVE / PASSIVE Examples:  The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished. ACTIVE  The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. PASSIVE  The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished. ACTIVE  The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. PASSIVE NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Perfect Continuous are not common. 65. Use of the passive voice. We form the passive with the verb “to bo” and the past participle of the main verb. The present perfect continous, the future cont., the past perfect cont., and the future perfect cont. are not normally used in the passive. We can use the verb to be instead of the verb to be in everyday speech when we talk about things that happen by accident or unexpectedly. USE We use the passive: 1. when the person who carries out the action is unknown, unimportant or obvious from the context. - My flat was broken into last week. (We don’t know who broke into the flat) - Coffee beans are grown in Brazil. (It is not important to know who grows the coffee) 2. when the action itself is more important than the person who carries it out, as in news headlines, newspapers articles, formal notices, instructions, advertisments, processes, etc. - The new hospital wil be opened by the Queen on May 15th. (formal notice) - Then, the milk is taken to factory where it is pasteurised. (process) 3. When we refer to an unpleasant event and we do not want to say who or what is to blame. - A lot of mistakes have been made. (instead of ‘You have made a lot of mistakes’.) To change a sentence from the active into the passive: a) the object of the active sentence becomes the subject in the passive sentence b) the active verb remains in the same tense, but changes into a passive form c) the subject of the active sentence becomes the agent, and is either introduced with the prepoistion ‘by’ or omitted. Active – Tom (subject) invited (verb) me (object). Passive – I (subject) was invited (verb) by Tom (agent).  The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been removed.) Gerund as direct object:  They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.)  They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed) Gerund as subject complement:  My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.)  My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.) Gerund as object of preposition:  The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.)  The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been removed.) A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as: The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do. Finding (gerund) a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund) in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate. I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity. my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund) offering (gerund) you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund) this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement. Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents. lying to (gerund) his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for. You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work. faking (gerund) an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund) to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy. Being (gerund) the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund) Punctuation A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it. Points to remember: 1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun. 2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). 3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation. Participles A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.  The crying baby had a wet diaper.  Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.  The burning log fell off the fire.  Smiling, she hugged the panting dog. A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as: Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Jack. Removing (participle) his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle) Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying cousin. walking (participle) along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb) Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual skills. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying children. introduced (to) (participle) music (direct object of action expressed in participle) early (adverb) Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Lynn. Having been (participle) a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of being expressed in participle) Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.  Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. *  Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step. In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence. Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.  Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.  Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles. If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.  Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.  The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt. Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:  The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.  The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin. If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies.  The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets. (The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)  Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence. (The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.) Points to remember 1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun. 2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). 3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated. 4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: o a) comes at the beginning of a sentence o b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element o c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies. Infinitives An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.  To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)  Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)  His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)  He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective) 3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a sentence. 70. Morphological categories of the infinitive The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb which names a process in a most general way. Like other non-finites the infinitive has a double nature: it has verbal and non-verbal (i.e. nominal) features. The verbal features of the infinitive are of two kinds: morphological (the infinitive has the verb categories of voice, aspect and perfect) and syntactical. The category of perfect 1. The non-perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive is simultaneous with the action of the finite verb; e.g. I’ve always heard him tell the tale. Combined with the present tense of such verbs as to want, to expect, to hope, to intend, etc. the non- perfect infinitive refers an action to the future; e.g. I want you to give me some information. When used with the modal verbs the non-perfect infinitive may also refer an action to the future; e.g. I must go and see him in a day or two. The meaning of the non-perfect infinitive may easily be modified by the context. Thus, it may denote an action preceding or following the action denoted by the finite verb. 2. The perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive precedes the action of the finite verb; e.g. I am very glad to have seen you again. Combined with a modal verb the perfect infinitive indicates a) either that the action took place in the past, e.g. Why did she go away so early last night? – She may have been ill. b) or that the action is already accomplished at a given moment and is viewed upon from that moment; e.g. Let’s go, it must have stopped raining. After the modal verbs should, ought to, could, might, was to /were to the perfect infinitive indicates that an action planned or considered desirable was not carried out. e.g. You should have phoned me at once. After the past tense forms of the verbs expressing hope, expectation, intention the perfect infinitive indicates that the action was not carried out. e.g. I meant to have written to you. (but I didn’t) The category of aspect 1. The common aspect forms denote simultaneousness with the action of the finite verb. 2. The non-perfect continuous infinitive denotes an action in its progress at the time when the action expressed by the finite form of the verb takes place;e.g. She seemed to be listening. 3. The perfect continuous infinitive denotes an action which lasted a certain time before the action of the finite verb., e.g. We must have been walking for two hours, let’s have a rest. The two aspects differ in their frequency and functioning; the continuous aspect forms are very seldom used and cannot perform all the functions in which the common aspect forms are used. They can only function as: a) subject; e.g. To be staying with them was a real pleasure. b) object; e.g. I was glad to be walking. c) part of a compound verbal predicate; e.g. Now they must be getting back. The category of voice The infinitive of transitive verbs has the category of voice, active (to say, to have said) and passive (to be said, to have been said). There are no perfect continuous forms in the passive voice and non-perfect continuous forms (to be being taken) are exceptionally rare. 72. Gerund and the infinitive compared Gerunds are nouns built from a verb with an '-ing' suffix. They can be used as the subject of a sentence, an object, or an object of preposition. They can also be used to complement a subject. Often, gerunds exist side-by-side with nouns that come from the same root but the gerund and the common noun have different shades of meaning. Examples: breath and breathing, knowledge and knowing. Examples of gerunds as the subject of a sentence are:  Backpacking is a rewarding pastime.  Stretching can loosen up muscles.  No smoking. (I.e., no smoking is allowed / you may not smoke here.) As an object:  We all love to go bowling on the weekend.  He loves eating chips. An object of preposition:  They complained of hearing strange sounds from the next cabin.  They sang about being eaten by bears to allay their fears. And as a complement to a subject:  One of the most dangerous things to do on the lake is ice-skating. Infinitive is the base form of the verb. The infinitive form of a verb is the form which follows "to". For example:  (to) go, (to) be,(to) ask, (to) fight, (to) understand, (to) walk . Infinitives may occur with or without the infinitive marker "to". Infinitives without "to" are known as "bare infinitives". For example:  Help me open the door. OTHER FORMS The infinitive can have the following forms: 1. The perfect infinitive to have + past participle For example: to have broken, to have seen, to have saved. This form is most commonly found in Type 3 conditional sentences, using the conditional perfect. For example:  If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake.  Someone must have broken the window and climbed in.  I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal when I was in India.  He pretended to have seen the film.  If I'd seen the ball I would have caught it. 2. The continuous infinitive to be + present participle For example: to be swimming, to be joking, to be waiting Examples:  I'd really like to be swimming in a nice cool pool right now.  You must be joking!  I happened to be waiting for the bus when the accident happened. 3. The perfect continuous infinitive to have been + present participle Examples: to have been crying, to have been waiting, to have been painting Examples:  The woman seemed to have been crying.  You must have been waiting for hours!  He pretended to have been painting all day. 4. The passive infinitive to be + past participle For example: to be given, to be shut, to be opened Examples:  I am expecting to be given a pay-rise next month.  These doors should be shut.  This window ought to be opened. NOTE: As with the present infinitive, there are situations where the "to" is omitted. 75. Structural classification of sentences. A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate-verb, but it may contain more than one object, attribute or adverbial. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction, such as and, but, or, or by a (;) without a conjunction. A complex sentence contains one main/principal clause and one or more dependent/subordinate clauses, with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause—a combination of a compound and a complex sentence. 76. One-member sentences Sentence Fragments are also called one-member sentences, which contain only the few words that express the main idea. 78. Elliptical (incomplete) sentences. In the grammar of a sentence, an elliptical construction is a construction that lacks an element that is, nevertheless, recoverable or inferable from the context. The elliptical construction is a In the sentence "Bobby kicked the ball", "ball" is the object. "Bobby" is the subject, the doer or performer, while "kick" is the action, and "ball" is the object involved in the action. Objects fall into three classes: direct objects, prepositional objects, and non-prepositional indirect objects. An object may take any of a number of forms, all of them nominal in some sense. Common forms include:  A noun or noun phrase, as in "I remembered her advice."  An infinitive or infinitival clause, as in "I remembered to eat."  A gerund or gerund phrase, as in "I remembered being there."  A declarative content clause, as in "I remembered that he was blond."  An interrogative content clause, as in "I remembered why she had left."  A fused relative clause, as in "I remembered what she wanted me to do." A complement is used with verbs like be, seem, look etc. Complements give more information about the subject or, in some structures, about the object. There are various definitions of 'complement', which range from the very general (anything in the predicate except the verb, including the direct object and adverbs) to the much more restrictive one used here. A complement is the part of the sentence that gives you more information about the subject (a subject complement) or the object (an object complement) of the sentence. The complement to be used, if any, is dependent on the verb used in the sentence. Subject complements normally follow certain verbs. e.g. He is Spanish. She became an engineer. That man looks like John. Object complements follow the direct object of the verb. E.g. They painted the house red. She called him an idiot! I saw her standing there   86). Compound sentences and types of coordination. In the English language, a compound sentence  is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses  are joined by a coordinating conjunction (with or without a comma), a correlative conjunction (with  or without a comma), or a semicolon that functions as a conjunction. A conjunction can be used to  make a compound sentence. The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses in a sentence  is accepted as part of the English language.  Example: My friend invited me to a tea party, but my parents didn't let me go. 87). Complex sentences. A complex sentence has a base of a complete sentence with a subject, verb, and words to complete the thought (the complete "couple" or "parents"). A complex sentence also adds additional information in separate phrases (the "children"). The information in the phrases depends upon the information in the complete sentence base; it cannot stand alone. The [bracketed] phrases in the following sentences add information to the base sentence but cannot stand alone:   [If the temperature stays at about freezing], then we can join the polar bear club for a dip in the lake. I told him that his new print on the wall looked like an interesting prehistoric drawing of a fish, [although I really just wanted to laugh]. The kids need to go to bed, [whether or not they want to], no later than 8:00 p.m. Certain words traditionally start off the subordinate, or dependent, parts of the complex sentence: before.....while.....if.....where after.....because.....whether.....whereas though.....since.....unless.....as although.....when.....because.....as if 88). Types of attributive/relative clauses. Types of relative clause  There are two types of relative clause: defining and non-defining. You use a defining (or restrictive) relative clause to ‘identify’ or ‘restrict the reference of’ a noun. You do not separate it from the rest of the sentence by commas (in text) or pauses (in speech).  The student who achieves the highest GPA score in this department will be awarded a prize of $20,000.  Computer games that involve fighting and shooting apparently have a negative effect on young people. You use a non-defining (or non-restrictive) relative clause to supply additional information about the noun, whose identity or reference is already established. You can also use it to comment on the whole situation described in a main clause.  Albert Einstein, who put forward the theory of relativity, is considered by many as the most intelligent person in human history.  The ELC, which provides language support to PolyU students, is located in the AG wing. You should not use the relative pronoun that in non-defining relative clauses 89). Types of adverbial clauses.  An adverbial clause is a clause that functions as an adverb. In other words, it contains subject (explicit  or implied) and predicate, and it modifies a verb. Types of adverbial clauses:   kind of clause usual conjunction function example time clauses when, before, after, since, while, as, until These clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. Her father died when she was young. conditional clauses if, unless These clauses are used to talk about a possible situation and its consequences. If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards. purpose clauses in order to, so that, in order that These clauses are used to indicate the purpose of an action. They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard. reason clauses because, since, as, given These clauses are used to indicate the reason for something. I couldn't feel anger against him because I liked him too much. result clauses so that These clauses are used to indicate the result of something. My suitcase had become so damaged on the journey home that the lid would not stay closed. concessive clauses although, though, while These clauses are used to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising. I used to read a lot although I don't get much time for books now place clauses where, wherever These clauses are used to talk about the location or position of something. He said he was happy where he was. clauses of manner as, like, the way These clauses are used to talk about someone's behaviour or the way something is done. I was never allowed to do things the way I wanted to do them. clauses of exclamations what a(an), how, such, so Exclamations are used to express anger, fear, shock, surprise etc. They always take an exclamation mark (!). What horrible news! How fast she types! You lucky man!