Chapter 1-4 Anatomy and Physiology Final Exam with Correct Questions and Answers, Exams of Nursing

Download Chapter 1-4 Anatomy and Physiology Final Exam with Correct Questions and Answers and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! Chapter 1-4 Anatomy and Physiology Final Exam with Correct Questions and Answers 1. Anatomy - Correct Answers the study of the structure of the body 2. Physiology - Correct Answers the study of the function of the body 3. Chemical level - Correct Answers represents the atoms and molecules that make up cells (Consists of Atomic level and molecular level) 4. Cellular level - Correct Answers represents the basic unit of all living things 5. Tissue level - Correct Answers a group of cells with similar or common function 6. Organ level - Correct Answers a group of tissues with similar or common function 7. Organ system level - Correct Answers a group of organs with similar or common function 8. Organismic level - Correct Answers the entire body consisting of the various organ systems. 9. Integumentary System - Correct Answers controls body temperature & protects body from environmental hazards 10.Skeletal System - Correct Answers supports body, protects soft body parts, stores minerals, forms blood cells 11.Muscular System - Correct Answers movement, support and produces heat 12.Nervous System - Correct Answers controls immediate responses to stimuli 13.Endocrine System - Correct Answers controls long-term responses in body 14.Cardiovascular System - Correct Answers internal transport of nutrients, wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and cells 15.Lymphatic & Immune Systems - Correct Answers defense, immunity and returns lost fluids to cardiovascular system 16.Respiratory System - Correct Answers exchange of air and delivery of blood gases to/from tissues 17.Digestive System - Correct Answers ingestion, breakdown and absorption of food & elimination of indigestible wastes 18.Urinary System - Correct Answers filtration of blood to maintain proper water and salt balance and to eliminate waste products 19.Reproductive System - Correct Answers produces sex cells and hormones related to reproduction 20.homeostasis - Correct Answers condition in which body's internal environment remains within certain narrow physiological limits 21.homeostatic regulation - Correct Answers adjustment of physiological system to maintain homeostasis 22. receptor - Correct Answers monitors change in controlled condition (stimulus) and sends input to control center 23.control (integration) center - Correct Answers receives input from receptor & determines appropriate response 24.effector - Correct Answers cell or organ that receives information (output) from control center and produces a response (effect) 25. interactions of a feedback system - Correct Answers stimulus -> receptor -> input (afferent pathway) -> control center -> output (efferent pathway) -> response 26.positive feedback - Correct Answers the response by the effector to the initial change is to further exaggerate the change. Example in labor contractions, the contraction of the uterus forces the baby towards the birth canal, which 27.places pressure on the cervix; the pressure of the baby against the cervix causes uterine contraction, etc. - Correct Answers ... 28.Negative feedback - Correct Answers the response by the effector to the initial change is to counter or reduce that change, thus bringing the system back to its "normal" state. Example When blood sugar level rises, the pancreas secretes 29. insulin which causes the cells of the body to take in glucose, thus removing glucose from the blood and lowering blood sugar level. - Correct Answers ... 74.Transverse - Correct Answers horizontal - cross-sectional -separates the body into superior and inferior parts 75. . - Correct Answers ... 76.dorsal body - Correct Answers The two major cavities of the body are the dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity. 77.ventral body - Correct Answers The organs in the ventral body cavity are surrounded by serous membranes which allow for organ movement. There are no serous membranes in he dorsal body cavity. 78.The dorsal body cavity - Correct Answers surrounds the brain and spinal cord. 79. It is separated into two subdivisions - Correct Answers the cranial cavity surrounds the brain and the spinal cavity surrounds the spinal cord. 80.The ventral body cavity - Correct Answers includes the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. 81.The thoracic cavity - Correct Answers is the cavity superior to the diaphragm and the abdominopelvic cavity is inferior to the diaphragm. 82.The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into - Correct Answers two pleural cavities, which contain the lungs, one pericardial cavity, which contains the 83.heart, and the mediastinum, which is the central region of the thoracic cavity containing the esophagus and trachea. - Correct Answers ... 84.The abdominopelvic cavity - Correct Answers is separated into two regions, which are not truly separated from one another in the 85.body. - Correct Answers ... 86.These are the abdominal cavity, - Correct Answers which contains primarily the digestive organs and the pelvic cavity, which contains primarily the reproductive and urinary organs. 87.Serous membranes (also called serosae) - Correct Answers are found within the ventral body cavity. They consist of two layers of membrane with fluid =(called serous fluid) in between the two layers. 88.The inner layer - Correct Answers which is closest to the organ, is 89.called the visceral layer. - Correct Answers ... 90.The outer layer - Correct Answers which is closest to the body wall, is called the parietal layer. 91.Pleura - Correct Answers serous membranes surrounding lungs 92.parietal pleura - Correct Answers outer serous membrane surrounding lungs 93.visceral pleura - Correct Answers inner serous membrane surrounding lungs 94.Pericardium - Correct Answers serous membranes surrounding heart 95.parietal percardium - Correct Answers outer serous membrane surrounding heart 96.visceral pericardium - Correct Answers inner serous membrane surrounding heart 97.Peritoneum - Correct Answers serous membranes lining organs in the abdominopelvic cavity (surrounding digestive, reproductive and 98.urinary organs) - Correct Answers ... 99.parietal peritoneum - Correct Answers outer serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region 100. visceral peritoneum - Correct Answers inner serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region 101. Imagine drawing a cross in the abdominopelvic region with the lines intersecting at the umbilicus. These represent the quadrants. Remember when naming the quadrants and regions that right and left refer to the patient's right and left. The quadrants are as follows - Correct Answers ... 102. Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant - Correct Answers ... 103. Right Lower Quadrant Left Lower Quadrant - Correct Answers ... 104. Now imagine drawing a "tic tac toe" in the abdominopelvic region with the umbilicus in the center of the middle square. The nine regions are as follows - Correct Answers ... 105. Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac - Correct Answers ... 106. Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar - Correct Answers ... 107. Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac - Correct Answers ... 108. oral - Correct Answers cavity of mouth 109. digestive - Correct Answers cavity inside the digestive tract 110. nasal - Correct Answers cavity inside nose 111. orbital - Correct Answers cavity around eyes 112. middle ear - Correct Answers cavity between eardrum and inner ear 113. synovial - Correct Answers cavity surrounding some types of joints 114. Matter - Correct Answers is anything that occupies space and has mass. 115. The three states of matter are - Correct Answers solid, liquid and gas. 116. How do they differ from each other - Correct Answers They differ from one another primarily in the distance between molecules and the motion of molecules. 117. In gases - Correct Answers molecules are far apart there is a lot of motion. 118. Liquids - Correct Answers have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than gases. 119. Solids - Correct Answers have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than liquids. 120. Element - Correct Answers building blocks of matter; each element is unique in its atomic structure and has its own unique properties 121. Atom - Correct Answers building blocks or basic units of elements 122. Subatomic particle - Correct Answers the particles that make up an atom; i.e., protons, neutrons and electrons 123. Proton - Correct Answers positively charged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom 124. neutron - Correct Answers uncharged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom 125. electron - Correct Answers negatively charged subatomic particle that resides in the energy levels (shells) of an atom molecules to stick to one another is called cohesion. Water molecules will also stick to other charged surfaces; this is called adhesion. As a result of cohesion, water has a high surface tension (the force required to break the surface). As a result of cohesion and adhesion, water exhibits capillary action (the tendency to rise up a tube and flow through a tube). 152. Also due to hydrogen bonds, - Correct Answers water functions to stabilize temperature because it resists temperature changes (has high specific heat). In order to change the temperature of any substance, the molecules must move faster. To make water molecules move faster, we first have to break hydrogen bonds, which requires energy. Using the same reasoning, water also does not change to the gaseous state easily (has high heat of vaporization). In addition, because of hydrogen bonds, when water freezes there is a lot of space between molecules. This makes water in its solid state less dense that water in its liquid state (ice floats). If ice did not float, life on earth would probably not exist (at least in areas subjected to freezing temperatures because after freezing at the interface with the air the ice would sink, then more water would freeze and sink, etc. Soon the entire body of water would be frozen solid. 153. Acid - Correct Answers substance that releases H+ in water 154. Base - Correct Answers substance that accepts H+ in water; OR substance that releases OH- in water 155. Salt - Correct Answers ionic compound that breaks down into anions and cations in water 156. Neutralization - Correct Answers the movement of pH towards neutral (occurs when an acid and base are combined). 157. Buffer - Correct Answers substance that resists changes in pH; composed of a weak acid and a weak base so that it can either release or accept H+ depending on conditions. 158. The pH scale - Correct Answers is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in solution. The scale goes from 0 to 14. PH : -log[H+]. PH -7 is neutral and represents a H+ concentration of 10-7. 159. As H+ concentration increases, - Correct Answers the pH decreases. PH<7 = acidic and pH>7 = basic. 160. Each change in pH of one whole unit - Correct Answers represents a 10- fold change in hydrogen ion concentration. 161. Hydrolysis - Correct Answers the breaking down of polymers (large molecules composed of repeating subunits) into monomers (the building blocks ) by adding water 162. Dehydration synthesis - Correct Answers the formation of polymers from monomers by removing water 163. CARBOHYDRATES - Correct Answers the monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides; the polymers are disaccharides and polysaccharides. 164. polar compounds - Correct Answers that dissolve well in water. 165. Carbohydrates are - Correct Answers essentially hydrated carbon compounds (CH2O). 166. Carbohydrates have two major functions - Correct Answers energy and structural support. 167. Monosaccharides - Correct Answers are generally burned to produce energy. 168. Polysaccharides are - Correct Answers either used to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support. 169. LIPIDS - Correct Answers Lipids are a structurally diverse group of molecules that are lumped together on the basis of their inability to dissolve in water (they are nonpolar). 170. The glycerides - Correct Answers are composed of a glycerol (three- carbon) backbone with fatty acids attached. 171. In a monoglyceride - Correct Answers 1 fatty acid is attached to glycerol; 172. In a diglyceride - Correct Answers 2 fatty acids are attached to glycerol. 173. In a triglyceride - Correct Answers 3 fatty acids are attached to glycerol. 174. Triglycerides are - Correct Answers also called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation. 175. Steroids - Correct Answers are composed of 4 interlocking carbon rings. There are a lot of different steroids with different functions. The primary functions include acting as chemical messengers (hormones) and stabilizing cell membranes (cholesterol) and facilitating fat digestion (bile). 176. Eicosanoids - Correct Answers function as chemical messengers that coordinate local cellular activities 177. Phospholipids and glycolipids - Correct Answers are lipids that have phosphate-containing groups or sugars attached to them; they function as components of cell membranes 178. PROTEINS - Correct Answers Proteins are a functionally diverse group of molecules with very similar primary structures. They consist of amino acids bonded to one another by peptide bonds. 179. The functions of proteins is variable, including - Correct Answers catalysis (enzymes), transport (plasma membrane proteins, hemoglobin& lipoproteins), chemical messengers (some hormones and neurotransmitters), immunity and defense. 180. NUCLEIC ACIDS - Correct Answers are chains of nucleotides bonded to one another (i.e., monomers = nucleotides; 181. polymers - Correct Answers nucleic acids). 182. Nucleic acids function - Correct Answers in containing hereditary information, containing information about proteins and performing protein synthesis. 183. The first Structural levels of organization - Correct Answers the primary sequence is the linear sequence of amino acids in the chain. 184. The secondary structural levels of organization sequence - Correct Answers is the twisting or coiling of the linear chain, which results from hydrogen bonds that occur at regular intervals along the chain. 185. The Third structural levels of organization - Correct Answers tertiary sequence is the folding of the coiled chain and is a result of interactions between R groups, which means that it varies depending on the primary structure. 186. fourth structural levels of organization - Correct Answers the tertiary structure is the aggregation of two or more coiled chains. The 3-D shape of a protein influences its function. The tertiary sequence is critical in dictating the overall 3-dimensional shape. The surface of the molecule will contain regions for binding to other molecules; the shape of these regions is critical to proper functioning. 187. The two structural classes of proteins are - Correct Answers globular proteins and fibrous proteins. Globular proteins typically function in providing structural framework & mechanical support or movement. 216. Glycolipids - Correct Answers sugar attached to phospholipid; function in cell adhesion and recognition. 217. Cholesterol - Correct Answers stabilize the membrane and give it some rigidity. 218. Integral proteins are - Correct Answers embedded into the phospholipid bilayer and may either extend all the way or partially through the bilayer. 219. Peripheral proteins - Correct Answers are not embedded into the bilayer but rest on the inner and outer phospholipid surfaces. 220. . Anchoring proteins - Correct Answers serve as attachment points for the cytoskeleton to provide structural support and shape. 221. Recognition proteins - Correct Answers allow for cells to identify other cells in order to protect the body against invaders. Some membrane proteins function as enzymes to catalyze reactions that occur at the membrane surface. 222. Receptor proteins are - Correct Answers proteins that bind to particular molecules which then alters the activity of the cell. Carrier proteins and channel proteins both function in transport of materials across the membrane. 223. Carrier proteins - Correct Answers actually bind to molecules and carry them across the membrane. 224. Channels - Correct Answers are protein-lined paths that allow for materials to pass through the membrane. 225. The membrane is composed of - Correct Answers carbohydrates are the glycolipids and glycoproteins, which are sugars added to lipids and proteins, respectively. Together they make up the glycocalyx, which refers to the outer, sticky region of the plasma membrane. It is only on the side of the membrane facing the extracellular fluid. 226. The glycocalyx functions - Correct Answers in cell adhesion, recognition and immunity. 227. Membranes of adjacent cells are - Correct Answers usually interconnected by the adhesive properties of the glycocalyx. Often, wavy surface contours can "interlock" adjacent cells as well. 228. There are 3 types of special junctions - Correct Answers tight junctons, desmosomes and gap junctions. 229. Tight junctions form - Correct Answers fluid-tight seals between cells to prevent leaking. These are common among epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and bladder. 230. Desmosomes are - Correct Answers anchoring junctions that fasten cells to one another or to the extracellular material. These are common in tissues subjected to friction & stretching (skin and heart muscle). 231. Gap junctions are - Correct Answers communicating junctions between adjacent cells that allow the movement of ions & small molecules to pass through pores from one cell to the next. These are present in heart and smooth muscle where ion flow synchronizes activity to generate coordinated contractions. 232. Sometimes cells will interact directly with other cells, but often they are responding to extracellular chemicals found within body fluids (e.g. hormones & neurotransmitters). Cells also interact with surrounding chemicals to help guide them during development and repair. In both the direct and indirect interactions, the glycocalyx is involved. One group of molecules in the glycocalyx are cell adhesion molecules (CAMS) that function in embryonic development, wound repair and immunity. The glycocalyx also consists of membrane proteins that act as receptors. Some of the receptors respond to contact with other cells (contact signaling) while others respond to specific chemicals ( - Correct Answers ligands) that bind to them. Examples of ligands include neurotransmitters and hormones. Some receptors may have a direct influence on the membrane while others use a regulatory molecule called a G protein and internal second messengers to regulate cell activities. 233. Passive transport processes require what - Correct Answers do not require the expenditure of energy while active processes require the use of energy. 234. Types of Passive processes - Correct Answers include diffusion, osmosis, filtration and facilitated diffusion. 235. Type of Active processes - Correct Answers include active transport and vesicular transport. 236. Concentration gradient - Correct Answers a difference in the concentration between two areas. 237. Simple Diffusion - Correct Answers movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy. 238. Facilitated diffusion - Correct Answers movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration using membrane carriers but without the use of energy. 239. filtration - Correct Answers the relatively unselective movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure without the use of membrane carriers or energy. 240. Osmosis - Correct Answers movement of water across a membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy. 241. Active transport - Correct Answers movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration using both energy and protein carriers. 242. vesicular transport - Correct Answers movement of substances across a membrane by forming a vesicle (membranous sac), which requires the use of energy and can go from high to low or low to high concentration. 243. endocytosis - Correct Answers movement of substances INTO the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy; this includes phagocytosis, bulk-phase endocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis 244. exocytosis - Correct Answers movement of substances OUT OF the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy 245. phagocytosis - Correct Answers movement of LARGE PARTICLES (FOOD, DEBRIS, BACTERIA ETC.) into the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy 246. pinocytosis - Correct Answers fluid-phase endocytosis = endocytosis of droplets of extracellular material (which includes fluid that contains dissolved molecules 247. receptor-mediated endocytosis - Correct Answers this is endocytosis that involves specific uptake of large molecules; the key difference here is the specificity (performed by the receptor). 248. Hydrostatic pressure - Correct Answers the pressure exerted by water on a membrane 249. osmotic pressure - Correct Answers pressure exerted to prevent the flow of water due to concentration gradient (this opposes the hydrostatic pressure) 250. tonicity - Correct Answers behavior of cells in solution 280. The cell cycle - Correct Answers is the time from the formation of a cell until that cell finishes dividing itself. It includes interphase and mitotic phase (mitosis). 281. In interphase - Correct Answers the cell is performing all of its functions other than dividing. 282. In mitosis - Correct Answers the cell is dividing. 283. interphase the - Correct Answers cell undergoes all of its normal daily metabolism (protein synthesis, digestion, cellular respiration, etc.). 284. During S ( - Correct Answers synthesis) the cell makes a copy of each of its chromosomes DNA replication). 285. During G2 - Correct Answers the cell produces enzymes and other materials needed for mitosis. 286. In DNA replication - Correct Answers , each chromosome unwinds and the two strands unzip from one another. A new strand is build using each of the two unzipped strands as templates. Now each chromosome has an exact duplicate (called sister chromatid) and each chromatid consists of a new strand attached to an old strand. 287. Mitosis is - Correct Answers the division of the nuclear material and cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasmic material (which coincides with the last stage of mitosis). 288. The stages of mitosis are - Correct Answers prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. 289. In prophase - Correct Answers the nuclear membrane breaks down, the chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindle forms. In metaphase the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell and are attached to the spindle by their centromeres. 290. In anaphase - Correct Answers the sister chromatids (exact copies of one another) are separated from one another by the shortening of the proteins in the mitotic spindle. One set of chromatids is pulled to one side of the cell and the other set is pulled to the other side of the cell. 291. In telophase - Correct Answers the chromatids have arrived at the two opposite poles of the cell, the nuclear membrane begins to reform and the chromosomes begin to decondense (lengthen out again). 292. Cytokinesis - Correct Answers is the division of the cytoplasm of the cell and it occurs during telophase. 293. Transcription occurs - Correct Answers in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm (at the ribosomes) 294. DNA - Correct Answers contains the information on how to make all of the proteins that the cell synthesizes. 295. mRNA - Correct Answers messenger RNA is a "transcript" of the section of DNA that describes how to make a particular protein 296. tRNA - Correct Answers transfer RNA the RNA that is hooked to an amino acid that brings the amino acids and attaches them to the growing protein 297. rRNA - Correct Answers ribosomal RNA the RNA that forms part of the ribosome 298. In transcription - Correct Answers a section of DNA containing the instructions for a particular proteins is exposed and a mRNA is built by matching the bases to the DNA (mRNA is made from DNA) 299. Genetic code - Correct Answers the way that amino acid sequences of a protein are encyrpted or encoded in the nucleotide base sequences of DNA. 300. 3 bases of DNA - Correct Answers 1 word in the genetic language and represents an amino acid 301. Codon - Correct Answers the three nucleotide base sequence of mRNA corresponding to a particular amino acid 302. Anticodon - Correct Answers the three nucleotide base sequence of tRNA that will be matched to the codon of the mRNA 303. Translation is - Correct Answers the formation of a polypeptide chain (protein) from a mRNA molecule. 304. The mRNA - Correct Answers connects to a ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time (one word or codon). 305. tRNA - Correct Answers brings in the matching anticodon and the amino acid that is attached. This amino acid is attached to the growing protein by a peptide bond and then the next codon is read. This continues until a STOP word is reached and translation ends. 306. The 3 types of extracellular materials are - Correct Answers body fluids, cellular secretions and extracellular matrix. 307. Body fluids are important - Correct Answers in transporting and dissolving substances (e.g., interstitial fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid). 308. Cellular secretions include - Correct Answers substances released by cells for digestion (intestinal and gastric fluids) and lubrication (saliva, mucus and serous fluid). 309. Extracellular matrix - Correct Answers is a jelly-like substance outside of cells composed of proteins and polysaccharides. It is secreted by cells and creates a mesh that surrounds cells. 310. Differentiation - Correct Answers a developmental process by which cells become more and more specialized for a particular function. 311. Apoptosis - Correct Answers programmed cell death. 312. Hyperplasia - Correct Answers accelerated growth 313. Tissue - Correct Answers collection of specialized cells and cell products that perform a relatively limited number of functions 314. Histology - Correct Answers study of tissues 315. EPITHELIAL - Correct Answers covers exposed body surfaces lines internal passageways, hollow organs, body cavities and ducts forms glands 316. CONNECTIVE - Correct Answers Tendons, ligaments, under epithelia, blood, bone, cartilage fills internal spaces structural support & protection for other tissues tranport of materials binds organs together stores energy reserves as fat 317. MUSCLE - Correct Answers In muscles movement & generation of force generates heat 318. NERVOUS - Correct Answers brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors carries information from one part of body to another via electrical impulses 319. List and describe the two major types of epithelial tissue - Correct Answers covering and lining epithelium forms superficial layer of skin and some internal organs forms inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities forms interiors of respiratory, digestive, urinary and repro systems glandular epithelium constitutes secreting portion of glands 343. simple columnar - Correct Answers ... 344. Single layer of column-shaped cells. - Correct Answers Contains goblet cells & microvilli & cilia in some locations 345. (microvilli - Correct Answers cytoplasmic projections that increase membrane surface area). Functions to propel fluids or particles along passageway and in secretion and absorption. It lines the stomach, intestine gallbladder and uterine tubes. 346. pseudostratified ciliated columnar - Correct Answers Single layer of column-shaped cells with cilia.The nuclei are at varying depths and all cells are attached to basement membrane in single layer but not all reach apical surface. 347. Cells that reach surface does what - Correct Answers either secrete mucus or bear cilia. It functions in protection, secretion and movement of mucus by cilia and is located in the trachea & bronchi 348. The function of glandular epithelium - Correct Answers is secretion which is accomplished by glandular cells that often lie in clusters deep to covering and lining epithelium. The gland may consist of one cell or group of specialized epithelial cells 349. Endocrine glands are ductless glands. Secretions enter EC fluid and then diffuse directly into bloodstream. - Correct Answers ... 350. (glandular epitheluim)Secretions are called hormones - Correct Answers Exocrine contain ducts. Secretions flow onto surface of covering & lining epithelium via tubelike ducts. Secretions include= mucus, perspiration, skin oil, ear wax, milk and digestive enzymes (sweat glands and salivary glands) 351. In merocrine glands - Correct Answers the secretion is released from secretory vesicle via exocytosis. 352. In an apocrine gland - Correct Answers , cells lose some cytoplasm as well as secretory product; apical portion of cytoplasm packed with vesicles and is shed. 353. In a holocrine gland - Correct Answers , the entire cell packed with secretory product and cell bursts open. 354. Connective tissue characterists are - Correct Answers is widely distributed throughout body but not exposed to exterior. It is a binding and connecting type of tissue rather than a lining like epithelial. It has highly variable structure and function. 355. Connective tissue consists - Correct Answers of sparsely distributed cells with lots of extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of ground substance and protein fibers. CT is very variable in its degree of innervation and vascularization. 356. Connective tissue is made up - Correct Answers of cells and extracellular matrix. 357. The extracellular matrix - Correct Answers is all of the material outside the cells and consists of ground substance and protein fibers. 358. The ground substance - Correct Answers is the watery (or gel-like or solid) background fluid in which cells and fibers are immersed or embedded. It fill spaces between cells & surrounds fibers. 359. Ground substance contains - Correct Answers interstitial fluid, proteoglycans and adhesion proteins. The ground substance and fibers are secreted by the cells. 360. The three types of fibers in connective tissue are - Correct Answers collagen fibers, reticular fibers and elastic fibers. 361. Collagen fibers - Correct Answers are long, straight, unbranched and are the most common type of fiber. 362. Collagen fibers - Correct Answers consist of a bundle of protein subunits wound together like rope. They are flexible but very strong when pulled from the end. 363. Reticular fibers - Correct Answers have same protein subunits as collagen fibers but arranged differently so that the fibers are thinner and form branching network. They provide support and strength; resist forces in many directions. 364. Reticular fibers are - Correct Answers found forming the stroma (supporting framework) of many soft organs (spleen, lymph nodes) and forming the basement membrane that attaches epithelium to connective tissue. 365. Elastic fibers - Correct Answers are composed of the protein elastin and are smaller in diameter than collagen fibers. They can stretch and return to original length and thus provide elasticity. 366. The permanent cell population consists of - Correct Answers fibroblasts, adipocytes, chondroblasts, osteoblasts and hematopoietic stem cells. 367. Fibroblasts - Correct Answers are the most abundant of the permanent cells and they are the only cells that are always present in CT proper. 368. Fibroblasts does what? - Correct Answers secrete the material that makes up viscous ground substance (hyaluronan (polysaccharide) + proteins = proteoglycan) and they secrete protein subunits that make up EC fibers. 369. Fibroblasts - Correct Answers are the immature cells (when they mature they are called fibrocytes). 370. Adipocytes - Correct Answers have large lipid droplets which squeeze the organelles to the periphery of the cell. The number of adipocytes varies from one type of CT to another and between individuals. 371. Chondroblasts - Correct Answers are immature cartilage cells (called chondrocytes when mature). 372. Osteoblasts - Correct Answers are immature bone cells (called osteocytes when mature). 373. hematopoietic stem cells - Correct Answers are immature blood cells (have a variety of names when mature). 374. The accessory cell population consists - Correct Answers of white blood cells, plasma cells, macrophages, mast cells and microphages. Macrophages, white blood cells, plasma cells and microphages function in defense. Mast cells store and secrete histamine (inflammatory response). 375. Well, maybe this should say 5 major classes. - Correct Answers embryonic connective tissue (mesenchyme),Connective tissue proper Cartilage, Bone ,Blood 376. The two classes of connective tissue proper are - Correct Answers loose CT and dense CT. 377. Loose connective tissue consists of three subclasses - Correct Answers areolar, adipose and reticular CT. 378. Dense connective tissue - Correct Answers most of the volume of tissue is occupied by fibers and collagen fibers predominate. 379. Dense CT consists of two sublcasses - Correct Answers dense regular CT and dense irregular CT. 380. Mesenchyme - Correct Answers is embryonic connective tissue that gives rise to all other connective tissues. inner cellular layer. The outer layer is for attachment of structures to the cartilage and the inner cellular layer produces new cells. 405. Blood - Correct Answers (vascular tissue) consists of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets). 406. Eryrthrocutes - Correct Answers function to transport O2 and some CO2. 407. Leukocytes - Correct Answers function in phagocytosis& are involved in immune/allergic rxns. Platelets =function in clotting. Blood is located within the heart and blood vessels 408. Describe the structure of an epithelial membrane. List and define the three types of epithelial membranes (cutaneous, mucous and serous) - Correct Answers Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial layer and underlying layer of CT connected to one another by a basement membrane. Synovial membranes lack a basement membrane, often have gaps between cells, and have primarily macrophages and fibroblasts as lining cells. 409. mucous membranes (mucosae) - Correct Answers are wet membranes that line body cavities that open directly to exterior(line all of dig, resp and repro systems and much of urinary system). 410. Anatomy - Correct Answers the study of the structure of the body 411. serous membranes (serosae - Correct Answers )are wet membranes that line body cavities not open to exterior & cover organs that lie within those cavities. They consist of thin layers of areolar CT covered by a layer of mesothelium (simple squamous). The epithelial layer secretes serous fluid. Transudate is the fluid formed on surface of serous membrane. The membrane is composed of 2 layers the outer parietal layer lines walls of cavity and the inner visceral covers & attaches to organs. Serous membranes are named according to location (pleura, pericardium and peritoneum). 412. cutaneous membranes are - Correct Answers dry membranes covering the external surface of body (skin). It consists of stratified squamous with underlying dense CT. 413. The three types of muscle tissue are - Correct Answers smooth,cardiac,skeletal 414. smooth - Correct Answers (surrounds organs and glands), 415. cardiac - Correct Answers (wall of heart) and 416. skeletal - Correct Answers (attached to bones). 417. Describe the structure, function and location of nervous tissue and its 2 major cell types - Correct Answers Nervous tissue is found in the nervous system (see objective # 2). It consists of neurons and supporting cells. The neurons conduct impulses and the supporting cells aid the neurons. We will discuss this in more detail in chapter 11. 418. Describe the three stages of tissue repair (inflammation, organization and regeneration/fibrosis). - Correct Answers Inflammation causes isolation of the damaged area and cleans up dangerous microorganisms. Damaged cells release chemicals that activate mast cells. Mast cells release histamine which cause increased blood flow and increased vessel permeability. This increases the oxygen, nutrients and phagocytes to the area and facilitates waste removal. 419. Organization - Correct Answers restores the blood supply to the damaged area. This occurs at the same time as inflammation. Blood clot is replaced by granulation tissue. 420. Regeneration - Correct Answers repairs or replaces the damaged tissues to restore normal function. New cells migrate into area. If instead of cells of the original tissue migrating into the area, fibrous connective tissue moves in, then there is the formation of scar tissue and this step would result in fibrosis. 421. Atrophy - Correct Answers decrease in size of organ or tissue 422. Programmed cell death - Correct Answers idea that the timing of the death of a cell is coded in the cells genes. 423. Telomere clock - Correct Answers the telomeres, which are the ends of chromosomes, may have a way of counting the number of times a chromosome is copied and then allow for its destruction after being copied a certain number of times. 424. Physiology - Correct Answers the study of the function of the body 425. Chemical level - Correct Answers represents the atoms and molecules that make up cells (Consists of Atomic level and molecular level) 426. Cellular level - Correct Answers represents the basic unit of all living things 427. Tissue level - Correct Answers a group of cells with similar or common function 428. Organ level - Correct Answers a group of tissues with similar or common function 429. Organ system level - Correct Answers a group of organs with similar or common function 430. Organismic level - Correct Answers the entire body consisting of the various organ systems. 431. Integumentary System - Correct Answers controls body temperature & protects body from environmental hazards 432. Skeletal System - Correct Answers supports body, protects soft body parts, stores minerals, forms blood cells 433. Muscular System - Correct Answers movement, support and produces heat 434. Nervous System - Correct Answers controls immediate responses to stimuli 435. Endocrine System - Correct Answers controls long-term responses in body 436. Cardiovascular System - Correct Answers internal transport of nutrients, wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and cells 437. Lymphatic & Immune Systems - Correct Answers defense, immunity and returns lost fluids to cardiovascular system 438. Respiratory System - Correct Answers exchange of air and delivery of blood gases to/from tissues 439. Digestive System - Correct Answers ingestion, breakdown and absorption of food & elimination of indigestible wastes 440. Urinary System - Correct Answers filtration of blood to maintain proper water and salt balance and to eliminate waste products 441. Reproductive System - Correct Answers produces sex cells and hormones related to reproduction 442. homeostasis - Correct Answers condition in which body's internal environment remains within certain narrow physiological limits 443. homeostatic regulation - Correct Answers adjustment of physiological system to maintain homeostasis 483. posterior (dorsal) - Correct Answers towards the back 484. medial - Correct Answers towards the midline 485. lateral - Correct Answers away from the midline 486. proximal - Correct Answers towards the point of attachment (limbs) 487. distal - Correct Answers away from the point of attachment (limbs) 488. superficial - Correct Answers towards the surface (i.e., skin) 489. deep - Correct Answers away from the surface 490. Sagittal - Correct Answers separates the body into right and left parts 491. Midsaggital - Correct Answers median = separates the body into equal right and left parts 492. Parasaggital - Correct Answers separates the body into unequal right and left parts 493. Frontal - Correct Answers coronal = separates the body into anterior and posterior parts 494. Transverse - Correct Answers horizontal - cross-sectional -separates the body into superior and inferior parts 495. .Cephalic - Correct Answers head 496. dorsal body - Correct Answers The two major cavities of the body are the dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity. 497. ventral body - Correct Answers The organs in the ventral body cavity are surrounded by serous membranes which allow for organ movement. There are no serous membranes in he dorsal body cavity. 498. The dorsal body cavity - Correct Answers surrounds the brain and spinal cord. 499. It is separated into two subdivisions - Correct Answers the cranial cavity surrounds the brain and the spinal cavity surrounds the spinal cord. 500. The ventral body cavity - Correct Answers includes the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. 501. The thoracic cavity - Correct Answers is the cavity superior to the diaphragm and the abdominopelvic cavity is inferior to the diaphragm. 502. The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into - Correct Answers two pleural cavities, which contain the lungs, one pericardial cavity, which contains the heart, and the mediastinum, which is the central region of the thoracic cavity containing the esophagus and trachea. 503. The abdominopelvic cavity - Correct Answers is separated into two regions, which are not truly separated from one another in the body. 504. These are the abdominal cavity, - Correct Answers which contains primarily the digestive organs and the pelvic cavity, which contains primarily the reproductive and urinary organs. 505. Serous membranes (also called serosae) - Correct Answers are found within the ventral body cavity. They consist of two layers of membrane with fluid =(called serous fluid) in between the two layers. 506. The inner layer - Correct Answers which is closest to the organ, is called the visceral layer. 507. The outer layer - Correct Answers which is closest to the body wall, is called the parietal layer. 508. Pleura - Correct Answers serous membranes surrounding lungs 509. parietal pleura - Correct Answers outer serous membrane surrounding lungs 510. visceral pleura - Correct Answers inner serous membrane surrounding lungs 511. Pericardium - Correct Answers serous membranes surrounding heart 512. parietal percardium - Correct Answers outer serous membrane surrounding heart 513. visceral pericardium - Correct Answers inner serous membrane surrounding heart 514. Peritoneum - Correct Answers serous membranes lining organs in the abdominopelvic cavity (surrounding digestive, reproductive and 515. urinary organs) - Correct Answers ... 516. parietal peritoneum - Correct Answers outer serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region 517. visceral peritoneum - Correct Answers inner serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region 518. Imagine drawing a cross in the abdominopelvic region with the lines intersecting at the umbilicus. These represent the quadrants. Remember when naming the quadrants and regions that right and left refer to the patient's right and left. The quadrants are as follows - Correct Answers ... 519. Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant - Correct Answers ... 520. Right Lower Quadrant Left Lower Quadrant - Correct Answers ... 521. Now imagine drawing a "tic tac toe" in the abdominopelvic region with the umbilicus in the center of the middle square. The nine regions are as follows - Correct Answers ... 522. Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac - Correct Answers ... 523. Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar - Correct Answers ... 524. Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac - Correct Answers ... 525. oral - Correct Answers cavity of mouth 526. digestive - Correct Answers cavity inside the digestive tract 527. nasal - Correct Answers cavity inside nose 528. orbital - Correct Answers cavity around eyes 529. middle ear - Correct Answers cavity between eardrum and inner ear 530. synovial - Correct Answers cavity surrounding some types of joints 531. Matter - Correct Answers is anything that occupies space and has mass. 532. The three states of matter are - Correct Answers solid, liquid and gas. 533. How do they differ from each other - Correct Answers They differ from one another primarily in the distance between molecules and the motion of molecules. 562. Metabolism - Correct Answers sum of all chemical reactions in the body (or cell). 563. Catabolism - Correct Answers metabolic activities that result in breaking down large molecules into smaller components 564. Anabolism - Correct Answers metabolic activities that result in build large molecules from smaller components . 565. Organic compounds - Correct Answers contain carbon and hydrogen; 566. inorganic compounds - Correct Answers do not. 567. properties of water - Correct Answers Water is polar which means that there is a partial positive charge near the hydrogens and a partial negative charge near the oxygen. The polarity of water makes it able to conduct an electrical current. It also makes it a good solvent because it can dissolve other polar molecules and ionic compounds (by separating the molecules when the charges (partial for polar and whole for ionic) on this molecule are attracted to the partial charges on the water molecule). Things that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic. Things that do not dissolve in water but are repelled by water are called hydrophobic. 568. Water molecules are held together by - Correct Answers hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds give water its fluidity. The tendency of water molecules to stick to one another is called cohesion. Water molecules will also stick to other charged surfaces; this is called adhesion. As a result of cohesion, water has a high surface tension (the force required to break the surface). As a result of cohesion and adhesion, water exhibits capillary action (the tendency to rise up a tube and flow through a tube). 569. Also due to hydrogen bonds, - Correct Answers water functions to stabilize temperature because it resists temperature changes (has high specific heat). In order to change the temperature of any substance, the molecules must move faster. To make water molecules move faster, we first have to break hydrogen bonds, which requires energy. Using the same reasoning, water also does not change to the gaseous state easily (has high heat of vaporization). In addition, because of hydrogen bonds, when water freezes there is a lot of space between molecules. This makes water in its solid state less dense that water in its liquid state (ice floats). If ice did not float, life on earth would probably not exist (at least in areas subjected to freezing temperatures because after freezing at the interface with the air the ice would sink, then more water would freeze and sink, etc. Soon the entire body of water would be frozen solid. 570. Acid - Correct Answers substance that releases H+ in water 571. Base - Correct Answers substance that accepts H+ in water; OR substance that releases OH- in water 572. Salt - Correct Answers ionic compound that breaks down into anions and cations in water 573. Neutralization - Correct Answers the movement of pH towards neutral (occurs when an acid and base are combined). 574. Buffer - Correct Answers substance that resists changes in pH; composed of a weak acid and a weak base so that it can either release or accept H+ depending on conditions. 575. The pH scale - Correct Answers is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in solution. The scale goes from 0 to 14. PH : -log[H+]. PH -7 is neutral and represents a H+ concentration of 10-7. 576. As H+ concentration increases, - Correct Answers the pH decreases. PH<7 = acidic and pH>7 = basic. 577. Each change in pH of one whole unit - Correct Answers represents a 10- fold change in hydrogen ion concentration. 578. Hydrolysis - Correct Answers the breaking down of polymers (large molecules composed of repeating subunits) into monomers (the building blocks ) by adding water 579. Dehydration synthesis - Correct Answers the formation of polymers from monomers by removing water 580. CARBOHYDRATES - Correct Answers the monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides; the polymers are disaccharides and polysaccharides. 581. polar compounds - Correct Answers that dissolve well in water. 582. Carbohydrates are - Correct Answers essentially hydrated carbon compounds (CH2O). 583. Carbohydrates have two major functions - Correct Answers energy and structural support. 584. Monosaccharides are generally burned to produce energy. - Correct Answers ... 585. Polysaccharides are either used to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support. - Correct Answers ... 586. LIPIDS - Correct Answers Lipids are a structurally diverse group of molecules that are lumped together on the basis of their inability to dissolve in water (they are nonpolar). 587. The glycerides - Correct Answers are composed of a glycerol (three- carbon) backbone with fatty acids attached. 588. In a monoglyceride - Correct Answers 1 fatty acid is attached to glycerol; 589. In a diglyceride - Correct Answers 2 fatty acids are attached to glycerol. 590. In a triglyceride - Correct Answers 3 fatty acids are attached to glycerol. 591. Triglycerides are also called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation. - Correct Answers ... 592. Steroids - Correct Answers are composed of 4 interlocking carbon rings. There are a lot of different steroids with different functions. The primary functions include acting as chemical messengers (hormones) and stabilizing cell membranes (cholesterol) and facilitating fat digestion (bile). 593. Eicosanoids - Correct Answers function as chemical messengers that coordinate local cellular activities 594. Phospholipids and glycolipids - Correct Answers are lipids that have phosphate-containing groups or sugars attached to them; they function as components of cell membranes 595. PROTEINS - Correct Answers Proteins are a functionally diverse group of molecules with very similar primary structures. They consist of amino acids bonded to one another by peptide bonds. 596. The functions of proteins is variable, including - Correct Answers catalysis (enzymes), transport (plasma membrane proteins, hemoglobin& lipoproteins), chemical messengers (some hormones and neurotransmitters), immunity and defense. 597. NUCLEIC ACIDS - Correct Answers are chains of nucleotides bonded to one another (i.e., monomers = nucleotides; 598. polymers - Correct Answers nucleic acids). 599. Nucleic acids function - Correct Answers in containing hereditary information, containing information about proteins and performing protein synthesis. 627. nucleotides - Correct Answers are the monomers of nucleic acids. 628. The plasma membrane - Correct Answers is a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipid molecules with proteins and cholesterol imbedded in the membrane and sugar and proteins attached to the surfaces. 629. The phospholipid bilayer is arranged - Correct Answers with the phosphate heads pointing outward and the fatty acid tails pointing toward one another. 630. The phospholipids - Correct Answers form the basic backbone of the membrane and function to physically isolate the cell from its surroundings. 631. The phospholipids do what - Correct Answers also allow very small molecules to pass through the membrane. The cholesterol molecules that are interspersed between phospholipids function to stabilize the membrane and give it some rigidity. The proteins in the membrane serve a variety of functions. 632. The sugars in the membrane - Correct Answers are attached to other molecules and function in cell adhesion and recognition. 633. Phospholipids - Correct Answers physically isolate the cell from its surroundings and allow very small molecules to pass through the membrane. 634. Glycolipids - Correct Answers sugar attached to phospholipid; function in cell adhesion and recognition. 635. Cholesterol - Correct Answers stabilize the membrane and give it some rigidity. 636. Integral proteins are - Correct Answers embedded into the phospholipid bilayer and may either extend all the way or partially through the bilayer. 637. Peripheral proteins - Correct Answers are not embedded into the bilayer but rest on the inner and outer phospholipid surfaces. 638. . Anchoring proteins - Correct Answers serve as attachment points for the cytoskeleton to provide structural support and shape. 639. Recognition proteins - Correct Answers allow for cells to identify other cells in order to protect the body against invaders. Some membrane proteins function as enzymes to catalyze reactions that occur at the membrane surface. 640. Receptor proteins are - Correct Answers proteins that bind to particular molecules which then alters the activity of the cell. Carrier proteins and channel proteins both function in transport of materials across the membrane. 641. Carrier proteins - Correct Answers actually bind to molecules and carry them across the membrane. 642. Channels - Correct Answers are protein-lined paths that allow for materials to pass through the membrane. 643. The membrane is composed of - Correct Answers carbohydrates are the glycolipids and glycoproteins, which are sugars added to lipids and proteins, respectively. Together they make up the glycocalyx, which refers to the outer, sticky region of the plasma membrane. It is only on the side of the membrane facing the extracellular fluid. 644. The glycocalyx functions - Correct Answers in cell adhesion, recognition and immunity. 645. Membranes of adjacent cells are - Correct Answers usually interconnected by the adhesive properties of the glycocalyx. Often, wavy surface contours can "interlock" adjacent cells as well. 646. There are 3 types of special junctions - Correct Answers tight junctons, desmosomes and gap junctions. 647. Tight junctions form fluid-tight seals between cells to prevent leaking. These are common among epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and bladder. - Correct Answers ... 648. Desmosomes are - Correct Answers anchoring junctions that fasten cells to one another or to the extracellular material. These are common in tissues subjected to friction & stretching (skin and heart muscle). 649. Gap junctions are - Correct Answers communicating junctions between adjacent cells that allow the movement of ions & small molecules to pass through pores from one cell to the next. These are present in heart and smooth muscle where ion flow synchronizes activity to generate coordinated contractions. 650. Sometimes cells will interact directly with other cells, but often they are responding to extracellular chemicals found within body fluids (e.g. hormones & neurotransmitters). Cells also interact with surrounding chemicals to help guide them during development and repair. In both the direct and indirect interactions, the glycocalyx is involved. One group of molecules in the glycocalyx are cell adhesion molecules (CAMS) that function in embryonic development, wound repair and immunity. The glycocalyx also consists of membrane proteins that act as receptors. Some of the receptors respond to contact with other cells (contact signaling) while others respond to specific chemicals ( - Correct Answers ligands) that bind to them. Examples of ligands include neurotransmitters and hormones. Some receptors may have a direct influence on the membrane while others use a regulatory molecule called a G protein and internal second messengers to regulate cell activities. 651. Passive transport processes require what - Correct Answers do not require the expenditure of energy while active processes require the use of energy. 652. Types of Passive processes - Correct Answers include diffusion, osmosis, filtration and facilitated diffusion. 653. Type of Active processes - Correct Answers include active transport and vesicular transport. 654. Concentration gradient - Correct Answers a difference in the concentration between two areas. 655. Simple Diffusion - Correct Answers movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy. 656. Facilitated diffusion - Correct Answers movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration using membrane carriers but without the use of energy. 657. filtration - Correct Answers the relatively unselective movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure without the use of membrane carriers or energy. 658. Osmosis - Correct Answers movement of water across a membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy. 659. Active transport - Correct Answers movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration using both energy and protein carriers. 660. vesicular transport - Correct Answers movement of substances across a membrane by forming a vesicle (membranous sac), which requires the use of energy and can go from high to low or low to high concentration. 690. mitochondria - Correct Answers produce energy (ATP); cellular respiration (break down of nutrients into carbon dioxide and water which liberates energy) 691. cytoskeleton - Correct Answers provide structural support; maintain cell shape; faciliate movement of cell and organelles; movement of chromosomes during division 692. microvilli - Correct Answers minute, finger-like projections of the plasma membrane (on the exposed surface); major function is to increase surface area of the membrane; usually found on absorptive surfaces 693. cilia - Correct Answers movement of materials across the cell 694. flagella - Correct Answers movement of cell through medium (e.g., sperm) 695. centrosome - Correct Answers an anchor for microtubules that is located near the nucleus and acts as an organizing center for the microtubules. Centrioles are located within the centrosome. 696. centrioles - Correct Answers help form the anchor of the mitotic spindle which separates chromosomes during division.. 697. Inclusions - Correct Answers inclusions are substances contained in the cell such as pigment molecules (melanin), stored nutrients (fats and glycogen) and various types of crystals. 698. The cell cycle - Correct Answers is the time from the formation of a cell until that cell finishes dividing itself. It includes interphase and mitotic phase (mitosis). 699. In interphase - Correct Answers the cell is performing all of its functions other than dividing. 700. In mitosis - Correct Answers the cell is dividing. 701. interphase the cell undergoes all of its normal daily metabolism (protein synthesis, digestion, cellular respiration, etc.). - Correct Answers ... 702. During S ( - Correct Answers synthesis) the cell makes a copy of each of its chromosomes DNA replication). 703. During G2 - Correct Answers the cell produces enzymes and other materials needed for mitosis. 704. In DNA replication - Correct Answers , each chromosome unwinds and the two strands unzip from one another. A new strand is build using each of the two unzipped strands as templates. Now each chromosome has an exact duplicate (called sister chromatid) and each chromatid consists of a new strand attached to an old strand. 705. Mitosis is - Correct Answers the division of the nuclear material and cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasmic material (which coincides with the last stage of mitosis). 706. The stages of mitosis are - Correct Answers prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. 707. In prophase - Correct Answers the nuclear membrane breaks down, the chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindle forms. In metaphase the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell and are attached to the spindle by their centromeres. 708. In anaphase - Correct Answers the sister chromatids (exact copies of one another) are separated from one another by the shortening of the proteins in the mitotic spindle. One set of chromatids is pulled to one side of the cell and the other set is pulled to the other side of the cell. 709. In telophase - Correct Answers the chromatids have arrived at the two opposite poles of the cell, the nuclear membrane begins to reform and the chromosomes begin to decondense (lengthen out again). 710. Cytokinesis - Correct Answers is the division of the cytoplasm of the cell and it occurs during telophase. 711. Transcription occurs - Correct Answers in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm (at the ribosomes) 712. DNA - Correct Answers contains the information on how to make all of the proteins that the cell synthesizes. 713. mRNA - Correct Answers messenger RNA is a "transcript" of the section of DNA that describes how to make a particular protein 714. tRNA - Correct Answers transfer RNA the RNA that is hooked to an amino acid that brings the amino acids and attaches them to the growing protein 715. rRNA - Correct Answers ribosomal RNA the RNA that forms part of the ribosome 716. In transcription - Correct Answers a section of DNA containing the instructions for a particular proteins is exposed and a mRNA is built by matching the bases to the DNA (mRNA is made from DNA) 717. Genetic code - Correct Answers the way that amino acid sequences of a protein are encyrpted or encoded in the nucleotide base sequences of DNA. 718. 3 bases of DNA - Correct Answers 1 word in the genetic language and represents an amino acid 719. Codon - Correct Answers the three nucleotide base sequence of mRNA corresponding to a particular amino acid 720. Anticodon - Correct Answers the three nucleotide base sequence of tRNA that will be matched to the codon of the mRNA 721. Translation is - Correct Answers the formation of a polypeptide chain (protein) from a mRNA molecule. 722. The mRNA - Correct Answers connects to a ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time (one word or codon). 723. tRNA - Correct Answers brings in the matching anticodon and the amino acid that is attached. This amino acid is attached to the growing protein by a peptide bond and then the next codon is read. This continues until a STOP word is reached and translation ends. 724. The 3 types of extracellular materials are - Correct Answers body fluids, cellular secretions and extracellular matrix. 725. Body fluids are important - Correct Answers in transporting and dissolving substances (e.g., interstitial fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid). 726. Cellular secretions include - Correct Answers substances released by cells for digestion (intestinal and gastric fluids) and lubrication (saliva, mucus and serous fluid). 727. Extracellular matrix - Correct Answers is a jelly-like substance outside of cells composed of proteins and polysaccharides. It is secreted by cells and creates a mesh that surrounds cells. 728. Differentiation - Correct Answers a developmental process by which cells become more and more specialized for a particular function. 729. Apoptosis - Correct Answers programmed cell death. 754. Columnar epithelia - Correct Answers are column-shaped (taller than they are wide). 755. simple squamous - Correct Answers single layer of flat cells that are found in areas subjected to little wear and tear, which function in absorption &/or secretion. 756. simple squamous - Correct Answers are found lining heart, blood vessels & lymph vessels (= endothelium), in the epithelial layer of serous membranes (= mesothelium) and lining the alveoli (air sacs) of lungs 757. stratified squamous - Correct Answers Many lauers; superficial cells flat; deep cells cuboidal to columnar. The deepest cells divide and shift to surface; as cells move toward surface they get farther from blood supply (underlying connective tissue); cells get dehydrated, shrunken and harder; at surface they lose junctions and are sloughed off & replaced. 758. stratified squamous - Correct Answers Primarily functions in protection and is found in the superficial layer of skin (epidermis) and lining wet surfaces (mouth, esophagus, tongue & part of epiglottis & vagina) 759. simple cuboidal - Correct Answers A single layer of cube-shaped cells that function in secretion & absorption and are located lining glands & ducts. 760. transitional - Correct Answers Transitional is composed of many layers but the appearance of individual cells changes due to stretching; Typically the superficial layer is not as flat as in stratified squamous. 761. transitional - Correct Answers is found in the urinary bladder and ureters. 762. simple columnar - Correct Answers ... 763. Single layer of column-shaped cells. Contains goblet cells & microvilli & cilia in some locations - Correct Answers ... 764. (microvilli - Correct Answers cytoplasmic projections that increase membrane surface area). Functions to propel fluids or particles along passageway and in secretion and absorption. It lines the stomach, intestine gallbladder and uterine tubes. 765. pseudostratified ciliated columnar - Correct Answers ... 766. Single layer of column-shaped cells with cilia.The nuclei are at varying depths and all cells are attached to basement membrane in single layer but not all reach apical surface. - Correct Answers ... 767. Cells that reach surface does what - Correct Answers either secrete mucus or bear cilia. It functions in protection, secretion and movement of mucus by cilia and is located in the trachea & bronchi 768. The function of glandular epithelium - Correct Answers is secretion which is accomplished by glandular cells that often lie in clusters deep to covering and lining epithelium. The gland may consist of one cell or group of specialized epithelial cells 769. Endocrine glands are ductless glands. Secretions enter EC fluid and then diffuse directly into bloodstream. - Correct Answers ... 770. (glandular epitheluim)Secretions are called hormones - Correct Answers Exocrine contain ducts. Secretions flow onto surface of covering & lining epithelium via tubelike ducts. Secretions include= mucus, perspiration, skin oil, ear wax, milk and digestive enzymes (sweat glands and salivary glands) 771. In merocrine glands - Correct Answers the secretion is released from secretory vesicle via exocytosis. 772. In an apocrine gland - Correct Answers , cells lose some cytoplasm as well as secretory product; apical portion of cytoplasm packed with vesicles and is shed. 773. In a holocrine gland - Correct Answers , the entire cell packed with secretory product and cell bursts open. 774. Connective tissue characterists are - Correct Answers is widely distributed throughout body but not exposed to exterior. It is a binding and connecting type of tissue rather than a lining like epithelial. It has highly variable structure and function. 775. Connective tissue consists of sparsely distributed cells with lots of extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of ground substance and protein fibers. CT is very variable in its degree of innervation and vascularization. - Correct Answers ... 776. Connective tissue is made up - Correct Answers of cells and extracellular matrix. 777. The extracellular matrix - Correct Answers is all of the material outside the cells and consists of ground substance and protein fibers. 778. The ground substance - Correct Answers is the watery (or gel-like or solid) background fluid in which cells and fibers are immersed or embedded. It fill spaces between cells & surrounds fibers. 779. Ground substance contains - Correct Answers interstitial fluid, proteoglycans and adhesion proteins. The ground substance and fibers are secreted by the cells. 780. The three types of fibers in connective tissue are - Correct Answers collagen fibers, reticular fibers and elastic fibers. 781. Collagen fibers - Correct Answers are long, straight, unbranched and are the most common type of fiber. 782. Collagen fibers - Correct Answers consist of a bundle of protein subunits wound together like rope. They are flexible but very strong when pulled from the end. 783. Reticular fibers - Correct Answers have same protein subunits as collagen fibers but arranged differently so that the fibers are thinner and form branching network. They provide support and strength; resist forces in many directions. 784. Reticular fibers are - Correct Answers found forming the stroma (supporting framework) of many soft organs (spleen, lymph nodes) and forming the basement membrane that attaches epithelium to connective tissue. 785. Elastic fibers - Correct Answers are composed of the protein elastin and are smaller in diameter than collagen fibers. They can stretch and return to original length and thus provide elasticity. 786. The permanent cell population consists of - Correct Answers fibroblasts, adipocytes, chondroblasts, osteoblasts and hematopoietic stem cells. 787. Fibroblasts - Correct Answers are the most abundant of the permanent cells and they are the only cells that are always present in CT proper. 788. Fibroblasts does what? - Correct Answers secrete the material that makes up viscous ground substance (hyaluronan (polysaccharide) + proteins = proteoglycan) and they secrete protein subunits that make up EC fibers. 789. Fibroblasts - Correct Answers are the immature cells (when they mature they are called fibrocytes). 790. Adipocytes - Correct Answers have large lipid droplets which squeeze the organelles to the periphery of the cell. The number of adipocytes varies from one type of CT to another and between individuals. 816. Dense irregular connective tissue - Correct Answers has interwoven mesh of fibers with no consistent pattern. It functions to provide strength in many directions. 817. Dense irregular connective tissue - Correct Answers found in fasciae, the reticular layer of dermis, perichondrium, periosteum, joint capsules, dura mater (outer meninge), membrane capsules around various organs (kidneys, liver, testes, lymph nodes), heart valves 818. Bone - Correct Answers provides for rigid, inflexible support. 819. Cartilage - Correct Answers provides flexible support. Cartilage has a matrix that is a firm gel that contains chondroitin sulfates (polysaccharide derivative) which forms complexes with proteins in ground substance to form proteoglycans. 820. Hyaline cartilage - Correct Answers is the most abundant type of cartilage. The matrix contains loosely packed collagen fibers. It is tough but flexible. It functions to provide smooth surfaces for movements and joints, flexibility, support. It is found on the ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi & bronchial tubes and the embryonic skeleton. 821. Elastic cartilage - Correct Answers contains numerous elastic fibers which make it resilient and flexible. It provides flexible support and maintains shape. It is found in the epiglottis, external ear, auditory tubes 822. Fibrocartilage - Correct Answers has very little ground substance. The matrix is dominated by collagen fibers which are densely interwoven. It functions in support and fusion. It is located in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs and menisci of knee. 823. Cartilage cells - Correct Answers are called chondrocytes and are located inside hollow areas in the matrix that are called lacunae. The physical properties depend on type and abundance of EC fibers and proteoglycan components. 824. Cartilage is - Correct Answers avascular which means that nutrient and waste diffusion must occur through matrix. Cartilage is surrounded by= a perichondrium which is composed of an outer fibrous layer (dense Irreg CT) and inner cellular layer. The outer layer is for attachment of structures to the cartilage and the inner cellular layer produces new cells. 825. Blood - Correct Answers (vascular tissue) consists of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets). 826. Eryrthrocutes - Correct Answers function to transport O2 and some CO2. 827. Leukocytes - Correct Answers function in phagocytosis& are involved in immune/allergic rxns. 828. Platelets - Correct Answers function in clotting. Blood is located within the heart and blood vessels 829. Describe the structure of an epithelial membrane. List and define the three types of epithelial membranes (cutaneous, mucous and serous) - Correct Answers Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial layer and underlying layer of CT connected to one another by a basement membrane. 830. Synovial membranes - Correct Answers lack a basement membrane, often have gaps between cells, and have primarily macrophages and fibroblasts as lining cells. 831. mucous membranes - Correct Answers (mucosae) are wet membranes that line body cavities that open directly to exterior(line all of dig, resp and repro systems and much of urinary system). The CT layer is called lamina propriaserous membranes =(serosae)are wet membranes that line body cavities not open to exterior & cover organs that lie within those cavities. They consist of thin layers of areolar CT covered by a layer of mesothelium (simple squamous). The epithelial layer secretes serous fluid. 832. Transudate - Correct Answers is the fluid formed on surface of serous membrane. 833. The membrane is composed of 2 layers - Correct Answers the outer parietal layer lines walls of cavity and the inner visceral covers & attaches to organs. 834. Serous membranes - Correct Answers are named according to location (pleura, pericardium and peritoneum).cutaneous membranes are dry membranes covering the external surface of body (skin). It consists of stratified squamous with underlying dense CT. 835. The three types of muscle tissue are - Correct Answers smooth,cardiac,skeletal 836. smooth - Correct Answers (surrounds organs and glands), 837. cardiac - Correct Answers (wall of heart) and 838. skeletal - Correct Answers (attached to bones). 839. Describe the structure, function and location of nervous tissue and its 2 major cell types - Correct Answers Nervous tissue is found in the nervous system (see objective # 2). It consists of neurons and supporting cells. The neurons conduct impulses and the supporting cells aid the neurons. We will discuss this in more detail in chapter 11. 840. Describe the three stages of tissue repair (inflammation, organization and regeneration/fibrosis). - Correct Answers Inflammation causes isolation of the damaged area and cleans up dangerous microorganisms. Damaged cells release chemicals that activate mast cells. Mast cells release histamine which cause increased blood flow and increased vessel permeability. This increases the oxygen, nutrients and phagocytes to the area and facilitates waste removal. 841. Organization restores - Correct Answers the blood supply to the damaged area. This occurs at the same time as inflammation. Blood clot is replaced by granulation tissue. 842. Regeneration - Correct Answers repairs or replaces the damaged tissues to restore normal function. New cells migrate into area. If instead of cells of the original tissue migrating into the area, fibrous connective tissue moves in, then there is the formation of scar tissue and this step would result in fibrosis. 843. Atrophy - Correct Answers decrease in size of organ or tissue 844. Programmed cell death - Correct Answers idea that the timing of the death of a cell is coded in the cells genes. 845. Telomere clock - Correct Answers the telomeres, which are the ends of chromosomes, may have a way of counting the number of times a chromosome is copied and then allow for its destruction after being copied a certain number of times.