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A&P II-Rodenbeck-Final Exam Study Guide 2024-2025. Questions and 100% Correct Answers. A+, Exams of Nursing

A&P II-Rodenbeck-Final Exam Study Guide 2024-2025. Questions and 100% Correct Answers. Graded A+

Typology: Exams

2023/2024

Available from 07/16/2024

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Download A&P II-Rodenbeck-Final Exam Study Guide 2024-2025. Questions and 100% Correct Answers. A+ and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!

A&P II-Rodenbeck-Final Exam Study

Guide 2024-2025. Questions and 100%

Correct Answers. Graded A+

  • capacitation has to happen so that freshly ejaculated sperm can penetrate an oocyte
  • capacitation enhances motility of the sperm and the membranes of the sperm head becomes fragile to allow release of hydrolytic enzymes from acrosome
  • hyaluronidase on the surface of the sperm digests intercellular attachments between cells of the corona radiata and cause them to fall away
  • after penetrating the corona radiata, sperm heads bind to receptors on zona pellucida
  • acrosomal reaction: acrosomal enzymes (hyaluronidase, acrosin, proteases, etc.) are released and digest away the zona pellucida
  • once a path through the zona pellucida is cleared, the back portion of the sperm head binds to plasma membrane of the oocyte
  • the oocyte membrane forms microvilli that encases the sperm head
  • cytoplasmic contents of the sperm enters to oocyte, and its plasma membrane stays behind
  • oocyte membrane block a mechanism for mono - ANSDescribe the events involved in fertilization.
  1. a series of catabolic steps in in which enzymes participate in breakdown of nutrients; physical (mechanical) and chemical - ANSHow would you define digestion?
  2. chemical substance secreted by cells into ECF - ANSDefine hormone
  3. collecting duct -> papillary duct -> renal pyramid -> minor calyx -> major calyx -> renal pelvis -> ureter -> urinary bladder -> urethra - ANSBeginning with the collecting duct, list in order the structures through which urine travels until it leaves the kidney.
  4. erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets - ANSWhat are the formed elements in the blood?
  5. filtration and immune system activation; defend body against environmental hazards and internal threats, immunological recognition, immune effector functions, immune suppression, and immunological memory - ANSWhat are the functions of the lymphatics and lymph nodes?
  6. heart: right atrium -> right AV valve -> right ventricle -> pulmonary SL valve -> pulmonary artery -> Lung: arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries (gas exchange) -> venules -> veins -> pulmonary veins -> heart: left atrium -> left AV valve -> left ventricle -> aortic SL valve -> aorta -> arteries of each organ -> arterioles of each organ -> capillaries of each organ (gas exchange) -> venules of each organ -> veins of each organ -> vena

cava -> heart: start over - ANSBlood flow through the heart begins where and involves which structures in order?

  1. metabolic alkalosis - ANSDescribe the effect of prolonged vomiting on acid-base balance in the body.
  2. Osmosis eliminates minor differences in concentration:
  • Because cell membranes are permeable to water - ANSWhat are the compartments of ICF and ECF, and how can they be normalized for homeostasis?
  1. seminiferous tubules -> straight tubules -> rete testis -> efferent ductules -> head/body/tail epididymis -> ductus deferens -> ejaculatory duct -> prostatic/intermediate/spongy urethra - ANSList in order the structures of the male reproductive system through which sperm pass during development and ejaculation.
  2. tunica interna: endothelium, simple squamous, decr. friction tunica media: elastin smooth muscle layer, vasomotor nerve fibers, bulkiest layer tunica externa: protect, outer layer of woven collagen fibers and contains vessels - ANSWhat are the primary tissues of the tunica interna, media and externa of blood vessels?
    • DCT and CD of kidney tubule cells (principal cells)
  • facultative water reabsorption Ald: incr. reabsorb Na+, targets principal cells to insert Na+/K+ channels and pump = incr. BP and decr. K+ ADH: cause principal cells to insert aquaporins for incr. H2O reabsorb - ANSHow do aldosterone and ADH affect urine concentration, and where do these hormones act?
    1. Menstrual phase Days 1- Uterus sheds functional layer of endometrium
  1. Proliferative (preovulatory) phase Days 6- Endometrium rebuilds
  2. Secretory (postovulatory) phase Days 15- Endometrium prepares for implantation of embryo - ANSDescribe the phases of the menstrual (uterine cycle).
  3. bradycardia, tachycardia - ANSWhat are the clinical terms for fast and slow heart rate?
  4. CCK: secreted due to fatty chyme; enzyme rich pancreatic juice from acinar cells; gallbladder contraction; hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax

secretin: HCO3- rich pancreatic juice by duct cells, minor stimulus for bile release - ANSWhat are the functions of cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin?

  1. hemostasis: fast series of reactions for stopping bleeding coagulation: blood clotting or clumping together of substances - ANSDefine hemostasis and coagulation.
  2. hypothalamus -> TRH -> anterior pituitary -> TSH -> thyroid -> T3 and T4 (TH) ----------> negatively inhibits hypothalamus secretion of TRH - ANSIllustrate negative feedback for hormones, using TSH as an example
  3. IR: systemic cap and tissues; O2 into tissues, CO2 into blood ER: pulmonary cap and lungs, alveoli, O2 into blood and CO2 into alveoli - ANSFully describe internal and external respiration. Include locations and direction of gas movement for each.
  4. secrete renin-> renin cleaves angiotensinogen to form Ang I -> Ang I cleaved by ACE to generate Ang II -> incr. BP and incr. CO by vasoconstrict, EPO, Aldosterone, ADH - ANSBeginning with the release of a kidney hormone, fully describe the process resulting in the activation of angiotensin II.
  5. see above; B cells activated by T helper cells + IL-2 -> memory B cells and plasma cells -> secrete antibodies (enhance innate response, complement, bind to bacteria cell membrane) - ANSHow are T and B cells activated and what will be the outcome of that activation?
  1. Vascular spasms and platelet plug formation (ADP and serotonin and Thromboxane A2)
  2. synthesis of Factor X to start common pathway
  3. prothrombin activator is formed
  • intrinsic pathway: triggered by negatively charged surfaces or collagen fibers, platelet factor - many intermediate steps (slow)
  • extrinsic pathway: triggered by blood exposure to tissue factor under endothelium, clotting factors 8 and 9 - few steps (fast)
  1. prothrombin converted to thrombin
  2. thrombin catalyzes the joining of fibrinogen to form a fibrin mesh
  3. clot retraction (PDGF and vascular-endothelial GF)
  4. fibrinolysis: plasminogen -> plasmin by plasminogen activating factor and plasmin degrades fibrin and removes clot - ANSDiagram the common pathway of coagulation.
    • variable regions of heavy and light chain = antigen binding site
  • variable region determines what antigen it binds to
  • constant region determines class of antibody - ANSDescribe an antibody or draw a figure and label it fully. What parts make up the antigen binding site?
  1. ANP: decr. BP, decr. BV by incr. Na+ excretion, incr. urine output, vasodilate, block ADH/Ald/EP/NE ADH: incr. BP, incr. BV by incr. water retention Ald: incr. BP, incr. BV by incr. Na+ reabsorb and water reabsorb - ANSHow do the hormones ANP and ADH and Aldosterone influence our blood volume and pressure?
  2. follicular phase period of follicular growth (days 1-14); form antrum luteal phase period of corpus luteum activity (days 14-28); secrete progesterone/estrogen ovulation occurs midcycle; boundary btw the two, ovary wall ruptures and 2nd oocyte is expelled surrounded by corona radiata - ANSDescribe the phases of the ovarian cycle.
  3. hormones that regulate other endocrine glands and the secretion of their hormones
  • ANSDefine tropic hormone
  1. If below 7.35 pH -> acidosis If above 7.45 pH -> alkalosis Check Pco If > 45 mmHg, respiratory acidosis or respiratory compensation for metabolic alkalosis If < 35 mmHg, respiratory alkalosis or respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis Check HCO3- If > 26 mEq/L, metabolic alkalosis or renal compensation for respiratory acidosis If <22 mEq/L, metabolic acidosis or renal compensation for respiratory alkalosis - ANSWhen we test a patient for blood gases, what parameters would make up a blood gas panel?
  2. plasma proteins, osmotic pressure - ANSWhat substance is rarely found in the filtrate in the renal tubules under normal conditions? Would this substance affect glomerular hydrostatic pressure most or osmotic pressure most?
  3. S1: closing of AV valves S2: closing of SL valves - ANSWhich physiological events are represented by the first and second heart sounds?
    • low iron, low O2 carrying capacity; caused by low RBC #, low hemoglobin content; abnormal hemoglobin
  1. hemorrhagic anemia, hemolytic anemia (RBCs rupture), pernicious anemia(low absorb VitB12), renal anemia (low EPO), aplastic anemia (destruct/inhibit red bone marrow)
  2. iron deficiency anemia
  3. thalassemia (absent globin chain); sickle cell anemia (valine for glutamic acid) - ANSDefine anemia and list the major types of anemia.
  1. AV valves closed and SL valves open during ventricular systole; AV valves open and SL valves closed during ventricular diastole - ANSRelate AV and Semilunar valves closing to ventricular systole and diastole.
  2. equal - ANSDescribe the relationship between intrapulmonary and atmospheric pressure when there is no air movement.
  3. If fertilization does not occur, progesterone levels fall, depriving the endometrium of hormonal support spiral arteries begin to kink and go into spasms and endometrial cells begin to die The functional layer begins to digest itself Spiral arteries constrict one final time then suddenly relax and open wide The rush of blood weakens and fragments capillary beds and the functional layer breaks down - ANSDescribe the hormonal and vascular event that causes menses.
  4. increased hematocrit decreases blood flow; increased vessel diameter increases blood flow - ANSHow would increased hematocrit and increased vessel diameter influence blood flow?
  5. neutralization, agglutination, precipitation (see picture) - ANSWhat defensive mechanisms do antibodies use to prepare antigens for destruction?
  6. TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH - ANSWhich of the anterior pituitary are trophic hormones?
  7. Ureters Paired tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder Urinary Bladder A temporary storage reservoir for urine Urethra A tube that caries urine from the bladder to the body exterior - ANSList the functions of the ureter, bladder and urethra.
  8. Calcitonin: parafollicular cells or C cells of the thyroid, secreted in response to high Ca2+ levels, humoral regulation; Actions: incr. excretion of calcium by kidneys, inhibit osteoclasts activity and cause Ca2+ uptake from blood to form more bony matrix; decr. Ca2+ levels

PTH: parathyroid cells of parathyroid gland, secreted in response to low Ca2+ levels, humoral regulation; Actions: incr. osteoclast activity, incr. Ca2+ reabsorption by the kidney tubule, incr. activation of Vit. D and calcitriol by kidney, incr. Ca2+ absorption from food in small intestine into blood; incr. Ca2+ in blood - ANSCalcium regulation is accomplished by two antagonistic hormones. Name these hormones, their source, and contrast their actions.

  1. human immunodeficiency virus, targets CD4 cells via surface proteins/destroys T helper cells; inject RNA, RNA -> DNA (reverse transcriptase), DNA -> genotype, DNA provirus -> viral RNA and proteins that spread - ANSDefine HIV and discuss its mechanism of infection, including its specific target cells.
  2. ovary -> pelvic cavity -> fimbriae -> infundibulum -> ampulla -> isthmus of uterine tube -> lumen of uterus -> endometrium of uterus - ANSList in order all of the structures that the oocyte encounters from ovulation to implantation
  3. P1V1 = P2V2 pressure and volume are inversely proportional - ANSDescribe the relationship between gas volume and pressure according to Boyle's Law.
  4. Regulate total volume of water in the body (ADH) and total concentration of solutes in that water (aldosterone)
  • Regulate concentrations of various ions in the extracellular fluids
  • Ensure long-term acid-base balance (mainly lungs)
  • Excrete metabolic wastes and foreign substances
  • Produce erythropoietin and renin
  • Convert vitamin D to its active form
  • Carry out gluconeogenesis during prolonged fasting Regulate volume and chemical makeup of the blood. Maintain the proper balance between water and salts, and acids and bases. - ANSWhat are the major functions of the kidney?
  1. see picture - ANSFully describe the role of baroreceptors in regulation of heart rate and stroke volume.
  2. sympathetic: release NE (opens Na+ and Ca2+ to speed depolarize), incr. HR and incr. CO parasympathetic: release Ach (open K+ to slow depolarize) decr. HR, decr. CO - ANSHow do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems affect the heart rate and cardiac output?
  3. bringing air into and out of the lungs; inspiration and expiration - ANSDefine pulmonary ventilation.
  1. diaphragm - ANSWhich structure in the body divides the aorta into thoracic and abdominal aorta?
  2. glucagon: alpha cells of pancreas, glucose uptake from blood into cells, glucose -> glucagon in liver; decr. blood glucose levels insulin: beta cells of pancreas, stimulate glucogen breakdown in liver to glucose, incr. blood glucose levels - ANSThe pancreatic islet cells secrete two hormones that work antagonistically in the regulation of plasma glucose levels. Name these two hormones, give their source, and describe their role in regulation of glucose.
  3. increase BP, increase afterload, decrease stroke volume (have more resistance) - ANSWhat is the effect of increased or decreased systolic and diastolic blood pressure affect stroke volume?
  4. Inside T helper cells - ANSWhere does HIV reside during the asymptomatic period?
  5. large fluid filled Antrum (follicular phase) - ANSWhich characteristics signify the imminent rupture of a Graafian follicle?
  6. Transport maximum (Tm) for every reabsorbed substance; reflects number of carriers in renal tubules available for facilitated diffusion or cotransport mechanisms.
  • When carriers saturated (all carriers are busy), excess excreted in urine. E.g., hyperglycemia -> high blood glucose levels exceed Tm and renal threshold (plasma concentration) of 180mg/dl -> glucose in urine (gycosuria)
  • excess glucose in urine holds water and more urine is excreted w/ glucose - ANSDefine transport maximum and renal threshold. What would happen if you had some much glucose that the blood level exceeded these parameters?
  1. diabetes mellitus: hyposecretion/hypoactivity of insulin, polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, "sweet urine" diabetes insipidus: hyposecretion of ADH, large urine output and intense thirst - ANSContrast Diabetes Mellitus and Diabetes Insipidus
  2. directly attack and kill other cells, perforin and granzymes to cause apoptosis, enhance phagocytosis - ANSAfter activation, what are the killing actions of Tc cells?
  3. end systolic volume: volume in ventricle at end of systole (contraction, 60 ml) end diastolic volume: volume in ventricle at end of diastole (relax, 130 ml) - ANSDefine ESV and EDV
  4. network of capillaries between arterioles and venules; Microcirculation: flow of blood through bed
  • Capillary beds consist of two types of vessels

Vascular shunt: channel that connects arteriole directly with venule (metarteriole- thoroughfare channel) True capillaries: actual vessels involved in exchange; Precapillary sphincters regulate blood flow into true capillaries

  • Blood may go into true capillaries or to shunt
  • Regulated by local chemical conditions (gas need of organ) and vasomotor nerves (innervated/control by NS) terminal arteriole -> metarteriole -> thoroughfare channel -> postcapillary venule - ANSDescribe the anatomy of a capillary bed and include all relevant structures.
  1. see picture - ANSBelow, list and define the volumes and capacities obtained using spirometry.
  2. Volume of filtrate formed per minute by both kidneys (normal = 120-125 ml/min)
  • GFR is directly proportional to
  1. NFP - primary pressure is hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus (incr. NFP = incr. GFR)
  2. total surface area available for filtration
  3. filtration membrane permeability increase blood pressure = increased GFR - ANSDefine GFR. What are the effects on GFR if you have high or low BP?
  4. decrease ESV - ANSHow would increased contractile force in the left ventricle effect ESV? Increase ESV or Decrease ESV or neither.
  5. dissolved in plasma, chemically bound to hemoglobin, HCO3- in plasma (70%) -CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3- - ANSFully describe CO2 transport in the blood. Include any relevant chemical reactions.
  6. innate: nonspecific, always present, physical barriers, phagocytes, immune surveillance, interferons, complement, inflammation, fever adaptive: response of antigen-specific lymphocytes, specific, acquired; B & T lymphocytes and their role - ANSContrast innate and adaptive immunity and list the major components of each.
  7. loop of henle, creates gradient; 1. efficiently reabsorbs solutes and water before reaching DCT and CD; 2. est. concentration gradient that permits passive reabsorb of water from CD - ANSWhat is the countercurrent multiplier, and what is its function?
  1. Pathway short, arteries/arterioles morel like veins/venules, arterial resistance and pressure low, auto regulatory mechanism: low O2 levels cause vasoconstriction, high cause vasodilation to allow blood flow to O2 rich areas of the lung - ANSDescribe the pulmonary circuit carrying blood to and from the lungs.
  2. Active: when B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies against them; natural: infection, artificial: vaccine Passive: instead of being made by plasma cells, ready made antibodies are introduced into body -> B cells not challenged by antigens, immunological memory does not occur and protection provided by "borrowed" antibodies ends when they degrade in body; natural: placenta, milk; artificial: injection - ANSDefine active and passive humoral immunity and the difference between natural and artificial immunity.
  3. lungs: Po2 in venous blood: 40 mmHg Po2 in alveoli = 104 mmHg Pco2 in blood = 45 mmHg Pco2 in alveoli = 40 mmHg Tissues: Po2 in systemic arterial blood > tissues Pco2 in systemic arterial blood < tissues - ANSDescribe the changes in the partial pressures of O2 and CO2 throughout the body.
  4. passive does not require energy; need active to transport Na+ across and out of thick segment of ascending limb of loop - ANSHow do you differentiate active and passive transport? What is the advantage of active over passive in the loop of Henle?
  5. shunted away from those areas to feed the muscles - ANSHow is the blood flow to the abdominal viscera and the skin affected by exercise?
  6. humoral: B cells; soluble antibodies, simple, interact in extracellular cell-mediated: T cells; recognize and respond to processed fragment of antigen displayed on cell surface, cell to cell interaction, intracellular abnormal or foreign infected cells - ANSDifferentiate humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
  7. incr. unloading = decr. Hb binding affinity for O2, incr. T, incr. H+ (acidic), incr. Pco2, incr. BPG (vice versa with decr. unloading) - ANSThinking of the hemoglobin-oxygen saturation curve, which factors would increase hemoglobin's unloading of oxygen to the tissues? Which ones would decrease unloading?
  8. systemic opposition to flow - ANSWhat does the term "total peripheral resistance" refer to? 18.triangular area outlined by the openings for the ureters and the urethra
  • Clinically important because infections tend to persist in this region - ANSWhat makes up the trigone area and what is its significance?
  1. atherosclerosis - ANSFormation of fatty plaques in the walls of arteries is characteristic of what disorder?
  2. Contraction of detrusor muscle by ANS
  3. Opening of internal urethral sphincter by ANS
  4. Opening of external urethral sphincter by somatic nervous system - ANSWhat's involved in the micturition reflex that causes urination?
  5. hypercapnia: high Pco2 levels in blood: increases breathing rate to rid body of CO hypocapnia: low Pco2 levels in blood - ANSDifferentiate hypercapnia and hypocapnia. Which one increases your breathing rate?
  6. IL-2 stimulates fever and is released by macrophages to stimulate T cells to: release IL-2 and synthesize more IL-2 receptors
  • stimulate T cell divisions, attract/stimulate macrophages, attract and stimulate NK cells, promote activation of B cells - ANSInterleukins are known as the immune system hormones. What are the major functions of interleukins?
    • blood filtering structure of the kidney, passive, glomerular mesangial cells; parietal layer: outer structural layer of simply squamous visceral layer: podocytes, foot processes, capsular space; capillary endothelium, basement membrane, foot processes of glomerular capsule - ANSDescribe structure and function of the glomerulus.
  1. 12-24 hrs (more than a day later) - ANSFollowing fertilization, how long is it before the zygote divides into two cells.
  2. 55% of whole blood, water (99%), solutes, electrolytes, proteins, nutrients, gases, hormones, nitrogenous wastes - ANSWhat are the major components of plasma?
  3. ANP causes Na+ loss at kidneys; secretion of K+ at DCT or CD (due to high K+ ECF) cause K+ loss at kidneys - ANSHow can sodium and potassium be excreted in the urine?
  4. autocrine: chemicals that exert effects on the same cells that secrete them (self- signaling); paracrine: locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them (close by signal, within some tissue) - ANSDefine autocrine and paracrine signaling.
  5. Epicardium Also known as the visceral pericardium Often infiltrated with fat - increasingly so with age

Myocardium Primarily comprised of cardiac muscle - contracting layer Muscle fibers are connected by connective tissue fibers Endocardium Thin, single layer of simple squamous endothelium on a thin connective tissue layer. Continuous with endothelial linings of blood vessels (inside of pump is continuous with the inside of blood vessels). - ANSList and describe the layers of the heart wall.

  1. Ingestion: taking food into digestive tract Propulsion: moves food through alimentary tract using peristalsis Mechanical Breakdown: Increases surface area of digested food using segmentation Digestion: a series of catabolic steps in in which enzymes participate in breakdown of nutrients Absorption: Passage of digested end-products from lumen of GI tract through mucosal cells into blood or lymph Defecation: removes indigestible substances from the body - ANSWhat are the four functions of the digestive system?
  2. respiratory acidosis caused by hypoventilation causes rise in blood cO2 (hypercapnia) and thus carbonic acid
  • respiratory alkalosis caused by hyperventilation results in too little CO2 (hypocapnia) - ANSDescribe the effect of hyper- and hypoventilation in the body.
  1. right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct - ANSWhere does the lymph return to the circulatory system?
  2. testes and ovaries (gonads) hormones: androgens (male), estrogen/progesterone (female) - ANSWhich organs are responsible for gamete production in males and females?
  3. veins: very little smooth muscle, larger lumen, capacitance vessels, low, non pulsatile pressures, flow controlled by valves, symp. venoconstriction, skeletal muscle pump and respiratory pump; bring blood to heart arteries: thicker tunica media, higher pressures, elastic conducting and muscular distributing; blood away from heart - ANSCompare the structure of arteries and veins.
  4. Cortical nephrons—85% of nephrons; almost entirely in cortex; short nephron loop glomerulus is further from cortex-medulla junction efferent arteriole supplies peritubular capillaries Juxtamedullary nephrons
  • Long nephron loops deeply invade medulla
  • Ascending limbs have thick and thin segments
  • Important in production of concentrated urine
  • proximal and distal convoluted tubes and glomerulus in cortex; long nephron loop glomerulus closer to cortex-medulla junction efferent arteriole supplies vasa recta - ANSName and differentiate between the two types of nephrons in the kidney.
  1. MHC 1 + CD8 + (co-stimulate) IL-2 -> cytotoxic T cells -> perforins and granzymes; perforins: insert in target cell membrane to form a pore; granzymes: enter target cell through pore and stimulate apoptosis - ANSDescribe in correct order the sequence of events that leads to activation of cytotoxic T cells and the cell-mediated immune response.
  2. see picture - ANSFully describe neural control of breathing. Include information about chemoreceptors involved and which chemicals activate which chemoreceptors.
  3. slows down - ANSWhat are some changes in our immune response due to aging?
  4. Vasa Recta: Bundles of long "straight vessels" parallel to long loops of Henle
  • Arise from efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary nephrons
  • Thin walled
  • Function in formation of concentrated urine (work w/ nephron loop)
  • similar to peritubular capillary Peritubular Capillaries: Low-pressure, porous capillaries adapted for absorption
  • Arise from efferent arterioles
  • Cling to adjacent renal tubules in cortex
  • Empty into venules
  • Readily absorb solutes and water from tubule cells as they reclaim these from filtrate.
  • Renal tubules closely packed together so capillaries reabsorb from several nephrons
  • capillaries that surround tubes - ANSName and differentiate the two capillary networks in the nephron in terms of structure and location.
    • passive reaborption of water in PCT
  • aided by aquaporins
  • movement of water concentrates and allows for solutes to move down their concentration gradients
  • water moves from low to high concentrations - ANSWhat exactly is osmosis, where does in occur in the nephron, and what is the benefit?
  1. Primary response
  • Activation and differentiation of B cells
  • Lag time of 3-6 days before increase in plasma antibodies
  • Plasma antibodies peak within 10 days, and then decline quickly Secondary response is faster and more effective
  • Memory cells are present and primed for the attack
  • New plasma cells are generated within hours
  • Plasma antibodies peak at high levels within 2-3 days
  • Plasma antibodies bind more tightly to their antigen
  • Plasma antibodies stay elevated for longer.
  • explanation for being immune to chickenpox after already having it
  • memory cells are working to create tons of plasma cells which create antibodies = faster, bigger, longer response (rise in graph)
  • starting point in graph indicates being sick
  • falling of graph indicates getting better
  • the side is measuring the concentration of antibodies in the plasma
  • every time undergo clonal expansion=make more memory cells - ANSContrast the major components of the primary and secondary immune response. Include information about lag time, which antibody is first, Ab titers, length and strength of the secondary response to the primary.
  1. PCT: reabsorption (secretion) due to microvilli DCT: secretion CD: intercalated cells (w/ microvilli -> acid-base) and principal cells (Na+/H2O balance)
  • ANSList each part of the nephron tubule system and tell what major event happens at each.
  1. DCT and CD; incr. BV and incr. BP - ANSIn which part of the nephron tubule do ADH and aldosterone exert their effects, and what are the benefits from these two hormones?
  2. afferent and efferent arterioles; protect glomerulus from fluctuation in BP, reinforce glomerular BP, decr. hydrostatic pressure of peritubular capillaries, high resistance to blood flow - ANSWhich structures bring blood to and from the glomerulus? Why is this particular blood vessel type well-suited for this job?
  3. alternate contraction of circular (squeeze) and longitudinal muscles (shorten) to move food; adjacent segments of the alimentary canal organs alternatively contract and relax; propulsion of the bolus distally along tract; mainly propulsion but some mixing - ANSWhat is peristalsis?
  4. arterioles -> venules - ANSWhich blood vessels are located at each end of a capillary bed?
  5. cleavage; blastomere; morula; blastocyst ("hatches" from zona pellucida"; trophoblast cell (flattened outer layer) with inner cell mass - ANSWhat is the term for the cell divisions taking place following fertilization? What is each new cell called?
  6. excrete more H+ by buffering with anion before excretion (HCO3-) H2O + CO2 <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3- - ANSDescribe how buffers minimize changes in the pH of body fluids.
  1. hormonal: tropic hormones, hormones stimulate secretion of other hormones; humoral: change in blood concentration of ions or nutrients causes secretion of hormones; neural: neural impulse causes secretion of hormones (sympathetic -> adrenal medulla) - ANSWhich three types of stimuli trigger hormone release?
  2. left/right atrium; left/right ventricle (left ventricle stronger and has a thicker muscle) - ANSList the four chambers of the heart.
  3. mini-valves, pulsations of nearby arteries, contractions of smooth muscle in walls of lymphatic vessels, breathing and pumping of skeletal muscles - ANSWhat mechanisms keep lymph flowing through the lymphatic vessels?
  4. neutrophils: 50-70% eosinophils: 2-4% basophils: 0.5% lymphocytes: 25% monocytes: 3-8% - ANSA differential count of WBCs would result in what rough percentages of which WBC types?
  5. spermatogonia -> type A&B -> primary spermatocyte -> secondary spermatocyte -> early spermatids -> late spermatids -> spermatozoa oogonium -> primary oocyte -> secondary oocyte + first polar body -> second polar body + ovum - ANSTrace the development of spermatocytes and oocytes from their respective stem cells.
  6. transport gas to and from exchange sites; nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles - ANSWhat are the conducting zone structures?
  1. presence of a receptor for that hormone
  2. blood levels of the hormone
  3. relative numbers of receptors for the hormone on/in target cell
  4. affinity (strength of binding) of receptor for the hormone (tighter bind = prolonged response) - ANSWhat three conditions determine the efficiency of hormone action?
  1. Tricuspid: open to allow filling of right ventricle Mitral: same but of left ventricle Aortic SL valve: allow blood to flow from left ventricle into aorta Pulmonary SL valve: same from right ventricle into pulmonic trunk - ANSList the four heart valves, and describe the specific function of each
  2. alveoli - ANSWhere does the respiratory zone begin?
  3. at puberty in males, spermatocytes go through meiosis I and II

before birth, oocytes go through mitosis and at birth primary oocyte enters meiosis I arrested in prophase I, secondary oocyte arrested in metaphase II - ANSCompare and contrast the timing of events during the development of spermatocytes and oocytes.

  1. bone - ANSIn which organ are all formed elements produced?
  2. deep circular folds of the mucosa and submucosa. Permanent, transverse folds; Structural modifications of the small intestine wall increase surface area and allow for better reabsorption - ANSWhat is the function of plicae circulares?
  3. If water is lost, but electrolytes retained:
  • ECF osmotic concentration rises
  • becomes hypertonic to ICF
  • Fluid shifts from ICF (cells) to ECF (blood, interstitial)
  • May result in dehydration If water is gained, but electrolytes are not:
  • ECF volume increases
  • ECF becomes hypotonic to ICF
  • fluid shifts from ECF to ICF (into cells)
  • may result in overhydration - ANSDiscuss how and why fluid shifts occur between ECF and ICF.
  1. Process by which two-layered embryonic disc becomes three-layered Involves cellular rearrangement and migration Begins with primitive streak formation Groove with raised edges appears on dorsal side of embryonic disc Extends from caudal toward cranial end Establishes longitudinal axis of embryo Epiblast cells migrate medially to enter primitive streak First cells to enter primitive groove displace hypoblast cells and become the definitive endoderm Cells that follow become the middle germ layer - the mesoderm Cells that remain in epiblast are now termed the ectoderm All body organs derive from these three germ layers. - ANSDescribe the process of gastrulation.
  2. red: RBCs and bloodborne pathogens white: lymphocytes - ANSWhat are the major cell types that we would find in the red pulp and white pulp of the spleen?
  3. tall, columnar, closely packed cells of DCT act as chemoreceptors that sense NaCl content of filtrate - ANSDescribe the structure, location, and function of the macula densa.
  1. veins - ANSWhich vessels hold the largest percentage of our blood supply?
  1. permissiveness: one hormone cannot exert its full effect w/o presence of other hormones (needy; lack of TH delays reproductive development)
  2. synergism: more than one hormone exerts same effects same effect at target cell, combo. effect (teamwork, glucagon and EP)
  3. antagonism: one hormone opposes action of another (rival, insulin and glucagon) - ANSList and define three ways that hormones interact at target cells
  1. (0) upstroke/rapid depolarize: Na+ in (1) rapid repolarize: K+ out (2) plateau: Ca2+ in and K+ out (3) repolarize: K+ out (4) resting membrane potential - ANSDraw the action potential of a cardiac muscle cell. Label the phases with the ion responsible and indicate direction of ion flux (into or out of the muscle cell).
  2. hematopoietic stem cells - ANSWhat is the name of the stem cell from which all formed elements are produced?
  3. incr. body temp that accelerates tissue metabolism and body defenses, response to cytokines secreted by leukocytes and macrophages, IL-1 (endogenous pyrogen), if too high for too long = denature enzymes, liver/spleen keep iron/zinc, incr. metabolic rate - ANSDescribe the non-specific defense, fever.
  4. inversely proportional F= delta P/R - ANSWhat is the relationship of blood flow to resistance?
  5. large intestine - ANSWhat digestive system structure causes dehydration and compaction of indigestible material?
  6. mitosis: 2 diploid cells formed from diploid cell (one division) meiosis: four haploid cells formed from diploid cell (2 divisions) - ANSWhat is the major difference in mitosis and meiosis during development?
  7. see picture - ANSTrace blood flow through the kidney beginning with the renal artery.
  8. soft palate - ANSWhere do the nasopharynx end and the oropharynx begin?
  9. There are four extraembryonic membranes that form during the first 2-3 weeks of development: The chorion helps to form the placenta, and encloses embryonic body and all other membranes The amnion contains amniotic fluid

The yolk sac forms part of the gut The allantois is the structural base for the umbilical cord - ANSName the four extraembryonic membranes and their functions or what they develop into.

protein: indirect activation, TH are amino acid but lipid soluble, 1st messenger is the hormone, cannot cross plasma membrane b/c polar so they must:

  1. bind to receptor in plasma membrane
  2. bind to and activate G-protein
  3. G-protein activates adenylate cyclase
  4. ADC convert ATP to cAMP (2nd msg)
  5. cAMP produces active protein kinase
  6. trigger response on target cell steroid: direct activation, stays in blood longer, lipid soluble, side groups make them different but al have carbon structure, activate target cell via intracellular receptors:
  7. diffuse across plasma membrane
  8. binds to receptors and forms receptor-hormone complex
  9. complex enters nucleus and binds to DNA
  10. acts as transcription factors of genes to produce mRNA
  11. mRNA directs protein synthesis - ANSDiscuss major differences in the mechanisms of protein and steroid hormone action at their target cells.
  1. decreases as it goes away from the heart, steep drop in arterioles - ANSWhat happens to the blood pressure as blood travels from arteries to veins?
  2. glomerular capsule -> PCT -> descending thin limb -> thin ascending limb -> thick ascending limb -> DCT -> CD -> papillary duct -> minor calyx -> major calyx -> renal pelvis - ANSTrace filtrate flow through the nephron, starting with the glomerular capsule.
  3. mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa, adventitia - ANSList and arrange in order the layers of the wall of the digestive tract from lumen to outermost.
  4. oropharynx and laryngopharnyx - ANSWhat parts of the pharynx receive both air and food?
  5. Produced initially by fetal cells and stimulates uterine muscle contraction
  • Distention of cervix triggers hypothalamus to signal oxytocin release from posterior pituitary; estrogens from placenta induce oxytocin receptors in uterus - ANSDuring labor and birth what are the sources and signals for more oxytocin?
  1. production of gametes (sexual reproduction) - ANSWhen does meiosis occur in humans?
  2. See picture - ANSList the ABO blood types and what antigens and antibodies are found in each.
  1. sinoatrial node - ANSWhich anatomical structure is the primary pacemaker of the heart?
  2. system of circulating proteins that assist antibodies in destruction of pathogens, links innate and adaptive immunity, amplify inflammatory response, classical/lectin/alternative pathways activate C3 -> C3a (inflammation) and -> C3b -> opsonization (bind to pathogen and signal phagocytosis), membrane attack complex = pore in cell membrane and lyse cell - ANSDescribe the non-specific defense, complement.
    • chemical msg that coordinate defense vs. viral infections, inhibit viral replication
  1. virus enters cell and into nucleus to replicate DNA (that cell is eventually killed by virus)
  2. interferon genes switch on
  3. cell produces interferon molecules
  4. interferon binding stimulates cell to turn on genes for antiviral proteins
  5. antiviral proteins block viral reproduction - ANSDescribe the non-specific defense, interferon
  1. AP: glandular tissue, connected via hypophyseal portal system (vascular), primary and secondary capillary plexuses, regulated by hypothalamic secretion of releasing and inhibiting hormones to adenohypophysis, synthesizes and secretes its own hormones PP: neural tissue, secretes neurohormones, connected to hypothalamus (synthesizes) via hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract arises from neurons in paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in hypothalamus, secretes Oxytocin and ADH; does not synthesize hormones just stores for release - ANSCompare and contrast the connections by which the hypothalamus communicates with the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis.
  2. contains desmosomes (anchor and prevent separation during contraction); gap junctions (for electrical coupling and form functional syncytium btw cells) - ANSWhat are the purposes of the intercalated discs in heart muscle?
  3. Dilation, Expulsion, and Placental Stage; False contractions are known as: Braxton Hicks contractions are weak, irregular contractions that occur due to estrogen's irritating effect on uterine muscle - ANSWhat are the major stages of labor during pregnancy and what is the term for false labor?
  4. glottis: opening btw. vocal folds, opens/closes during speech epiglottis: elastic cartilage that covers larynx during swallowing - ANSDifferentiate the glottis and epiglottis in terms of structure and function.
  5. Holds ingested food Major protein digestion (pH 2); Enzymatically digests proteins with pepsin (chief cells) Degrades this food both physically and chemically Delivers chyme to the small intestine Secretes intrinsic factor required for absorption of vitamin B

Only alcohol and NSAIDs (aspirin) absorbed

  • parietal cells secrete HCl and intrinsic factor - ANSWhat are the functions of the stomach?
  1. hydrostatic pressure: push due to high BP osmotic pressure: pull due to presence of plasma proteins - ANSCompare and contrast hydrostatic and osmotic pressures. Include information about which is a "pulling" and which is a "pushing" pressure, as well describing the primary force or substance influencing each.
  2. increase blood flow - ANSHow would dilation of arterioles affect blood flow to the tissues?
  3. LH: stimulate thecal cells to secrete androgens, surge cause ruptured follicle involved in ovulation FSH: stimulate follicles in ovaries to grow, mature, and secrete sex hormones - ANSList the gonadotropins and give their functions.
  4. serum-A, serum-B, and serum-D did not clump so I have O- blood - ANSIllustrate or describe how you tested your own blood type.
  5. Cephalic phase prepares stomach to receive ingested material
  • Mucus, enzymes, acids, and gastrin
  1. Gastric phase begins with the arrival of food in the stomach
  • Neural, hormonal, and local responses cause mucus, pepsinogen, acid release, mixing waves, and begin protein digestion with pepsin
  1. Intestinal phase controls the rate of gastric emptying of chyme in to duodenum
  • Inhibits pepsinogen and acids and reduces motility - ANSDescribe the phases of gastric secretion.
    • converted to Ang II
  1. Constricts arteriolar smooth muscle, causing MAP to rise
  2. Stimulates the reabsorption of Na+
  • Acts directly on the renal tubules and triggers adrenal cortex to release aldosterone (target at principal cells to reabsorb Na+)
  1. Stimulates the hypothalamus to release ADH and activates the thirst center
  2. Constricts efferent arterioles, decreasing peritubular capillary hydrostatic pressure and increasing fluid reabsorption - ANSHow does the kidney use renin to raise blood pressure?
  3. ADH: hypothalamus via PP in response to low BP and dehydration; stimulate kidney tubule cells to retain water; target cell is kidney tubule cells (principal cells)

Aldosterone: adrenal cortex in response to change in Na+/k+ concentration; reabsorb Na+, eliminate K+, raise BP; target kidney tubule cells (principal cells) - ANSCompare and contrast ADH and aldosterone; include source, function, and target cell for each.

  1. allow large bolus of food to be swallowed easily, prevent collapse of trachea and allow it to expand and contract - ANSWhat are two great physiological advantages that the anatomy of C-shaped tracheal cartilages offer?
  2. arterioles dilate -> local hyperemia -> heat and redness incr. capillary permeability -> capillary leak fluid (exudate) -> leaked protein-rich fluid -> *pain and swelling/8 - ANSWhat changes (or four cardinal signs) would occur as a result of inflammation due to histamine increasing blood flow and permeability of blood vessels?
  3. both parents have to be O- (If A+, type A or AB, other type A or O, must have a parent with a +) - ANSBased on your own blood type, what are the probable predictions of your parents' types?
  4. P Wave: atrial depolarize - SA node PQ: signal delayed of AV node QRS: ventricle depolarize and atrial repolarize ST: ventricle depolarization complete T wave: ventricle repolarization - ANSDraw an ECG tracing and label it with the appropriate electrical event in the chambers of the heart.
  5. PNS: decr. BP, inhibit SNS SNS: incr. BP, NE and EP to incr. CO and incr. vasoconstriction - ANSHow do PNS and SNS affect blood pressure?
  6. prostate gland: the prostate gland's milky, slightly acidic fluid, which contains citrate, enzymes, and prostatic-specific antigen (PSA), accounts for 1/3 of semen volume; activates sperm bulbo-urethral gland: produce thick, clear mucus that neutralizes acidic urine and lubricates urethra prior to ejaculation seminal gland: secretes 60% of volume of semen - ANSList the accessory glands of the male reproductive system, together with their functions.
  7. collecting duct and DCT; presence or absence of ADH and aquaporins
  • see picture - ANSWhat two parts of the nephron are responsible for concentrating urine? How is it accomplished?
  1. GH: GHRH, liver and skeletal muscle TSH: TRH, thyroid ACTH: CRH, adrenal cortex of adrenal gland

FSH and LH: GnRH, gonads PRL: absence of PIH, breasts - ANSList the anterior pituitary hormones, their releasing hormones, and their targets

  1. globin + 4 heme groups; bind to and carry oxygen (4) and CO2 - ANSDescribe the structure and function of hemoglobin
  2. K+ slows depolarization NA+ speeds up depolarization - ANSWhat would happen if pacemaker cells become more permeable to potassium ions? To sodium ions?
  3. Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL) are formed in the liver and released to the blood stream to deliver cholesterol to peripheral tissues.
  • High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL) are present in blood and recycle excess cholesterol from peripheral tissue to liver for storage or secretion in bile. - ANSRegarding transport of cholesterol, what are the important functions of LDL and HDL?
  1. MHC 1: displayed by all nucleated cells, recognized by CD8 (cytotoxic T cells), endogenous antigens; MHC1 + CD8 + IL-2 -> cytotoxic T cells (phagocytosis and perforins and granzymes) MHC 2: displayed by all APCs, recognized by CD4 (helper T cells, exogenous antigen; APC w/ antigen displayed on MHC 2 + CD4 T cell + B7 to CD28 -> T helper cells and memory T cells - ANSDistinguish the MHC proteins I and II with regard to MHC Restriction and their role in T and B cell activation.
  2. NFP=factors promoting filtration (HPc + OPif) - factors promoting reabsorption (HPif + OPc) (+) filtration (-) reabsorption hydrostatic pressure and filtration are greatest on arteriole end; osmotic pressure and reabsorption are greatest on venule end - ANSDefine NFP and describe the four pressures contribute to it.
  3. respiratory membrane - ANSWhat is the 3-part structure that allows efficient gas exchange within the lungs?
  4. stratum functionalis: endometrium; undergoes cyclic changes in response to ovarian hormones and is shed during menstration stratum basalis: endometrium; forms a new functionalis after menstruation ends and does not respond to ovarian hormones - ANSDiscuss the two epithelial layers of the uterus.