Amino Acids, Proteins, and Enzymes, Exams of Biochemistry

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IRENE GOLD BIOCHEM BOARDS FINAL EXAM

NEWEST ACTUAL EXAM COMPLETE 45 0

QUESTIONS AND CORRECT DETAILED ANSWERS

(VERIFIED ANSWERS) |ALREADY GRADED A+

How many amino acids are incorporated into proteins? - ANSWER All amino acids exist in what form, EXCEPT for glycine? - ANSWERL-form All amino acids are in L-form EXCEPT for what? - ANSWERglycine Glycine is not in L-form because? - ANSWERit doesn't contain a chiral carbon define chiral carbon - ANSWERdifferent compounds at each binding site All amino acids are what? - ANSWERamphoteric define amphoteric - ANSWERcan act as an acid or base What are the essential amino acids: **PVT TIM HALL - ANSWER→phenylalanine →valine →tryptophan →threonine →isoleucine →methionine →histidine →arginine →leucine →lysine

Histidine is __________________ in a child but not an adult - ANSWERessential What are the purely ketogenic amino acids? - ANSWERleucine and lycine What does lysine do? - ANSWERprecursor to carnitine What does carnitine do? - ANSWERtakes FA into mitochondria for B-oxidation What are the AROMATIC amino acids? - ANSWER→phenylalanine →tyrosine →tryptophan "Phen from house tyro-L trypt" How many of the aromatic a.a.'s are ALSO essential? - ANSWER What type of ring does tryptophan have? - ANSWERindole ring What are the sulfur-containing amino acids? - ANSWER→cysteine →methionine →cystine Cystine is what? - ANSWER2 cysteines linked together What are the BRANCHED amino acids? - ANSWER→isoleucine →leucine →valine Maple syrup urine disease can't break down what? - ANSWERbranched amino acids What are the acidic amino acid? - ANSWER→aspartic acid(aspartate) →glutamic acid(glutamate) Aspartame contains what? - ANSWERaspartic acid: XS = neurotoxic What are the basic amino acid? - ANSWER→histidine →lysine

→arginine Basic a.a.'s have the greatest ____________________________ at NORMAL pH of blood. - ANSWERpositive net charge What is the limiting amino acid for wheat? - ANSWERlysine What is the limiting amino acid for rice? - ANSWERlysine What is the limiting amino acid for legumes? - ANSWERtryptophan What is the limiting amino acid for maize? - ANSWERlysine & tryptophan What is the limiting amino acid for pulses? - ANSWERmethionine (OR cysteine) What is the limiting amino acid for egg/chicken? - ANSWERNONE (the reference for absorbable protein) What is the amino acid derivative of: phenylalanine? - ANSWERtyrosine What happens when there's a deficiency of phenylalanine hydroxylase? - ANSWERphenylketonuria= PKU (can't covert to tyrosine) What is the amino acid derivative of: tyrosine ---> L-dopa ---> dopamine - ANSWER→catecholamines →norepinephrine →epinephrine What is the a.a. derivative of: tyrosine → L-dopa → - ANSWERmelanin (skin pigmentation) What happens if L-dopa can't convert to melanin? - ANSWERalbinism What is the amino acids derivative of: tyrosine - ANSWERT3, T What is the amino acid derivative of: histidine - ANSWERhistamine What is the amino acid derivative of: tryptophan --->serotonin - ANSWERmelatonin

What is the amino acid derivative of: tryptophan --->niacin - ANSWERnicotinamide For every 10kg of body weight, how many grams of protein are needed? - ANSWER8 g Define Isoelectric point: - ANSWERpH when an a.a. has no net electrical charge (neutral) Define Zwitter ion: - ANSWERan amino acid at its isoelectric point Define Glutathionine: - ANSWERTripeptide of glycine + glutamate + cysteine Selenium (Se) is the mineral for what? - ANSWERenzyme glutathione peroxidase Insulin is made up of what? - ANSWER2 polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bond Insulin is not part of the animal cell membrane, but helps what? - ANSWERhelps glucose enter the cell What are compound classifications examples for polypeptide hormones? - ANSWER→insulin →glucagon What are compound classifications examples for catecholamines? - ANSWER→epinephrine →norepinephrine What are compound classifications examples for steroids? - ANSWER→testosterone →cortisol →estrogen →progesterone What is the characteristic bond of all proteins? - ANSWERpeptide bond The peptide bond is a type of what bond that is specific for proteins? - ANSWERamide bond What are AKA's for peptide bond? - ANSWER→C-N bond →Carboxyl-Amino bond

What is the structure for primary structure? - ANSWERlinear sequence of amino acids What is the structure for secondary structure? - ANSWERalpha-helices and beta- pleated sheets alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets are held together by what? - ANSWERhydrogen bonds (between atoms of the polypeptide backbone) What are examples of secondary structure? - ANSWER→fibrous protein's collagen →silk →e.g. 2 DNA strands together What is the structure for tertiary structure? - ANSWERfolding of a single polypeptide chain in solution What is a classic example of a globular protein w/ tertiary structure? - ANSWERmyoglobin (DISULFIDE BOND) What is the structure for quaternary structure? - ANSWERassociation of 2 or more polypeptide chains to make a fxnl protein What is a classic example of quaternary structure? - ANSWER→Hemoglobin →Hydrogen and disulfide bonds What happens to oxygen when hemoglobin acts as an allosteric compound? - ANSWERoxygen will change conformational shape Disulfide bonds connect what? - ANSWERthe light and heavy chains of an antibody All enzymes are what? - ANSWERcatalysts Enzymes increase the ______ of a rxn by ______________________. - ANSWER→rate →lowering the activation energy T/F Enzymes are not consumed in rxn. - ANSWERTrue What is the molecule which enzymes act upon? - ANSWERsubstrate

Km is what? - ANSWERa measure of the affinity that an enzyme has towards the substrate What is Vmax? - ANSWERthe max velocity of the enzyme What is the relationship between Km and Vmax? - ANSWERKm= 1/2 Vmax What are the 3 major factors that affect the rxn velocity of an enzyme? - ANSWER→substrate concentration →temperature →pH Define Vmax: - ANSWERmaximal velocity of an enzyme catalyzed rxn Define Km in relation to Vmax: - ANSWERthe amount of substrate required to reach 1/ Vmax What are competitive inhibitors? - ANSWER→increase the Km →no change in Vmax What are noncompetitive inhibitors? - ANSWER→no change in Km →decrease the Vmax Define competitive inhibitors: - ANSWERbind to substrate binding site of enzyme what happens w/ competitive inhibitors? - ANSWER-increase Km (lower affinity)

• no change in Vmax
• can add enough substrate to dilute out inhibitor Define noncompetitive inhibitors: - ANSWERbinds to site other than substrate binding site what happens w/ noncompetitive inhibitors? - ANSWER-no change in Km: b/c affinity for binding site has not changed
• decrease in Vmax: will take longer to reach Vmax What are allosteric enzymes? - ANSWERact as the rate limiting steps for an entire metabolic pathway Allosteric enzyme activity is modulated by what? - ANSWERallosteric effectors (ex. PFK allosterically inhibited by an increase of ATP) Define Gibb's free energy: - ANSWERmeasure of the amount of energy available to determine if a rxn is energetically feasible

delta G = 0 What does this mean? - ANSWERequilibrium delta G = (+) What does this mean? - ANSWERrxn is non-spontaneous/unfavorable endergonic(not sure if that's spelled correct...get over it lol) delta G = (-) What does this mean? - ANSWERrxn is spontaneous/favorable exergonic Vitamins are converted to what in the body? - ANSWERcoenzymes Minerals are converted to what in the body? - ANSWERcofactors What are the water soluble vitamins? - ANSWERB1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, Vit C What is the aka for B1? - ANSWERthiamine What is the active form of B1? - ANSWERThiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP) What is the reaction for B1? - ANSWERdecarboxylation (-CO2) These are diseases for what vitamin: →beri-beri →wet=cardiovascular →dry=PNS →Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrom - ANSWERB These are associated with what vitamin? →numbness of legs →psychosis w/ dementia (not sure what Donofrio meant for this) - ANSWERB What is the aka for B2? - ANSWERriboflavin What is the active form of B2? - ANSWERFlavin-adenine-dinucleotide (FAD) These are reactions for which vitamin? →redox

→dehydrogenase enzyme - ANSWERB2 (riboflavin) These are diseases for what vitamin: →cheilosis →angular stomatitis (cracking on sides) "magenta tongue" - ANSWERB2 (riboflavin) What vitamin is destroyed by light? - ANSWERB What is the aka for B3? - ANSWERniacin These are active forms of what vitamin? →NAD+ →NADP+ →Nicatinamide →Adenine dinucleotide - ANSWERB3 (niacin) These are reactions to what vitamin →redox →dehyrdogenase enzyme - ANSWERB3 (niacin) These disease are linked to what vitamin:

• Pellagra
• 4 D's (dementia, diarrhea, dermatitis, death) - ANSWERB Notes for B3: - ANSWERTryptophan ---> niacin ---> nicatinamide What is the active form of B5? - ANSWERpantothenate What is the reaction for B5? - ANSWERstructural component of CoA What is the def. disease for B5? - ANSWERburning foot syndrome (paresthesias) What vitamin is heat liable? - ANSWERB What is the aka for B6? - ANSWERpyridoxine What is the active form of B6? - ANSWERpyridoxal- 5 - phosphate What is the reaction for B6? - ANSWER1. Transanimations Ketoacid <--> Amino Acid

2. a.a. metabolism

What vitamin is made by flora? - ANSWERB What is the aka for B7? - ANSWERbiotin What is the active form of B7? - ANSWERBiocytin What is the reaction for B7? - ANSWER-Carboxylation (-CO2) e.g. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (lipogenesis) What is the def. disease for B7? - ANSWERavidin in egg whites depletes biotin What vitamin is linked with intestinstinal bacteria make? - ANSWERB What are aka's for B9? - ANSWERfolic acid folate What is the active form of B9? - ANSWERtetrahydrofolate What is the reaction for B9? - ANSWERone carbon transfers (Methyl transfer)

• DNA & RNA synthesis These diseases are linked to what vitamin?
• megaloblastic anemia
• glossitis
• neural tube defects --> spina bifide - ANSWERB Aka for B12: - ANSWERcobalamin What is the active form for B12? - ANSWERmethylcobalamin What is the reaction for B12? - ANSWERHomocystein remethylation These diseases are linked to what vitamin?
• pernicious anemia (from low intrinsic factor) PLS: posterolateral sclerosis AKA combined systems disease
• B12 deficiency from any other cause is megaloblastic anemia (e.g. vegetarians) - ANSWERB These are linked to what vitamin:
• contains cobalt
• mainly in animal products (lacking in vegetarian diet) - ANSWERB

What is the AKA for Vit C? - ANSWERAscorbic Acid What is the reaction for Vit C? - ANSWERHydroxylation of proline and lysine in collagen (enhances Iron absorption) What is the def. disease for Vit C? - ANSWERScurvy (bleeding gums) Proline --> Hydroxyproline -->Fe3+ -->Fe2+ These are linked to what vitamin?

• destroyed by heat
• brussel sprouts=one of the highest sources - ANSWERVitamin C What are Fat Soluble Vitamins classified as? - ANSWERisoprenes OR isoprenoids What are the fat soluble vitamins? - ANSWERVit A, Vit D, Vit E, Vit K KADE What is the active form of Vit A? - ANSWERretinal retinoid acid = most active form What is the function of Vit A? - ANSWERvision, growth These diseases are linked to what vitamin?
• night blindness = 'nyctalopia'
• keratomalacia = degeneration of the cornea
• xerophthalmia = dry eyes - ANSWERVitamin A What vitamin is this linked to? vitamin for the immune system - ANSWERVitamin A What is the active form for Vit D? - ANSWER1, 25-dihydroxy-cholecalciferol What is the function of Vit D? - ANSWERcalcium and phosphate metabolism These diseases are linked to what vitamin? Rickets in young Osteomalacia in adults - ANSWERVitD What vitamin can the body make? - ANSWERVitD What is the active form of Vit E? - ANSWERalpha-tocopherol What is the function of Vit E? - ANSWERlipid antioxidant

What is the def. disease for Vit E? - ANSWERexcess = diarrhea What is the best source of VitE? - ANSWERwheat germ oil What is the best source of Vit K? - ANSWERgreen leafy vegetables What is the function of Vit K? - ANSWERblood clotting, precursory to CoQ What is the def. disease for Vit K? - ANSWERdef = increased clotting time These are linked to what vitamin?

• converts prothrombin to thrombin
• made by flora - ANSWERVit K What is the fxn of the mineral chromium? - ANSWERglucose tolerance factor What is the metabolism for chromium? - ANSWERhelps bind insulin to cell What is the deficiency disease/symptoms for Chromium? - ANSWERimpaired glucose tolerance What is the function for cobalt? - ANSWERconstituent of Vit B What is the def. disease/symptoms for cobalt? - ANSWERpernicious anemia (B12) These are the function for what mineral?
• binds to ATP
• mm contaction/relax
• protein production
• many enzymes - ANSWERMagnesium (mineral) What is the metabolism for magnesium? - ANSWERMg: Ca ration = 1: These are diseases for what mineral?
• hyperexcitability
• mm weakness
• sleepiness - ANSWERmagnesium What are the functions for iodine? - ANSWER-thyroxine (T4)
• triiodothyronine(T3) What is the metabolism for iodine? - ANSWERstored as thyroglobulin

What is the def. disease/symptoms for iodine in children? - ANSWERcretinism What is the def. disease/symptoms for iodine in adults? - ANSWERgoiter, myxedema What are the functions of Iron? - ANSWERHeme enzymes: hemoglobin, cytochromes What is the metabolism for transported Iron? - ANSWERtransferrin What is the metabolism for stored Iron? - ANSWERferritin What is the deficiency disease or symptoms for Iron? - ANSWERhypochromic microcytic anemia What are the functions of selenium? - ANSWERcofactor, glutathione peroxidase What is the metabolism for selenium? - ANSWERantioxidant What is the function for Zinc? - ANSWERcofactor, carbonic anydrase What is the metabolism for zinc? - ANSWERimmune system taste wound healing prostate What is the deficiency disease or symptoms for zinc? - ANSWERimpaired wound healing What is the function of fluoride? - ANSWERincrease hardness of teeth What is the deficiency disease or symptoms for Fluoride? - ANSWERdental carries What is the excessdisease or symptoms for Fluoride? - ANSWERhyperfluorosis ????????Methylation Cycle - ANSWER B12 gives methyl group to what? - ANSWERhomocysteine B9 gives methyl group to what? - ANSWERB B9 deficiency affects what? - ANSWERB12 and vice versa B12 deficiency causes which anemia? - ANSWER-#1 pernicious anemia (if from low intrinsic factor)

• megaloblastic anemia (vegetarians)

What happens if you're deficient in B Vit's during remethylation cycle? - ANSWERyou will create a methionine deficiency Vit D synthesis?????????? - ANSWER??????????? Iron Absorption?????????? - ANSWER????????????? Fe 3+ aka - ANSWERFerric MOST ACTIVE in food and used in body Fe2+ aka - ANSWERFerrous MOST ABSORBABLE absorbed in intestines A mineral deficiency of Calcium (or Magnesium) results in tetany because? - ANSWERCalcium and magnesium track together What are the antioxidants? - ANSWERVit A Vit C Vit E Selenium (ACEs) Glutathione Lipoid Acid CoQ PTH increases what? - ANSWERserum calcium Calcitonin decreases what? - ANSWERserum calcium (calcitonin 'tones' down calcium in blood) Monosaccharides are categorizes as what? - ANSWERaldehydes ketones The aldehyde group is always on ___________________ and the ketone is ___________________ - ANSWER-Carbon #

• Carbon # How to know what type of monosaccharide you have? - ANSWER1. Count # of C's ( C's =pentose, 6 C's = hexose)

2. Where is the Carbonyl (C=O) group? Carbon #1 = aldo (aldehyde) Carbon #2 = keto (ketone) The most relevant monosaccharides have how many C's? - ANSWER5 (pentose)

6 (hexose) What is the monosaccharide name for glucose? - ANSWERaldohexose What is the monosaccharide name for galactose? - ANSWERaldohexose What is the monosaccharide name for mannose? - ANSWERaldohexose What is the monosaccharide name for ribose? - ANSWERaldopentose What is the monosaccharide name for fructose? - ANSWERketohexose What is the Monosaccharide formula? - ANSWERCn(H2O)n n= # of C's ex. ketopentose = C5H10O aldohexose(glucose) = C6H12O Define Isomers: - ANSWERdifferent compounds w/ the same chemical formula (Glucose, Fructose & Galactose) (C6H1206) Define Epimers: - ANSWERMonosaccharides which differ in their configuration around one specific C Glucose and Galactose are what? - ANSWERC-4 epimers Glucose and Mannose are what? - ANSWERC-2 epimers Define Enantiomers: - ANSWERmirror images of the same compound (L and D- glucose) Define Anomers: - ANSWERAnomeric C's are formed when sugars cyclize What is the anomeric carbon for aldehyde (glucose, galactose)? - ANSWERC- 1 What is the anomeric carbon for a ketosugar(fructose)? - ANSWERC- 2 What are the two designations for anomers? - ANSWER→alpha OR →beta Describe the Fischer projection in regards to representations of monosaccharides: - ANSWERlinear stick figure Describe the Haworth projection in regards to representations of monosaccharides: - ANSWER→cyclized form (eg. picture of ribose and deoxyribose)

What is sucrose made up of and what is their linkage? - ANSWER→glucose + fructose Linkage: alpha 1, beta 2 What is lactose made up of and what is it's linkage? - ANSWER→galactose + glucose Linkage: beta 1, 4 What is maltose made up of and what is it's linkage? - ANSWER→glucose + glucose linkage: alpha 1, 4 What is isomaltose made up of and what is it's linkage? - ANSWER→glucose + glucose linkage: alpha 1, 6 What is cellobiose made up of and what is it's linkage? - ANSWER→glucose + glucose linkage: beta 1, 4 Lactase can break what linkage in lactose? - ANSWERbeta 1, 4 Amylase breaks what linkage and forms what? - ANSWER→alpha 1, 4 →maltose What does amylopectin break into? - ANSWERmaltose and isomaltose Amylose breaks into what? - ANSWERmaltose What are polysaccharides? - ANSWERhomopolymers of glucose In HUMANS what linkages are present in glycogen? - ANSWER→alpha 1, 4 AND →alpha 1, 6 In PLANTS what linkages are present in amylose? - ANSWERalpha 1, 4 In PLANTS what linkages are present in amylopectin? - ANSWER→alpha 1, 4 →alpha 1, 6 In PLANTS what linkages are present in cellulose? - ANSWER→beta 1, 4 FIBER What linkage is the branch point of glycogen? - ANSWERalpha 1, 6 Glycogen is what? - ANSWERmost highly branched Amylose alpha-amylase breaks amylose into What? - ANSWERmaltose

Amylopectin is a homolog of what? - ANSWERglycogen Why can't humans digest cellulose? - ANSWER→can't break beta 1, 4 linkage; →don't have cellulase What's the aka for glycosaminoglycans(GAGs)? - ANSWERMucopolysaccharides Define GAGs: - ANSWERa large complex of negatively charged heteropolysaccharides which bind large amounts of water What is the major structural characteristic of GAGs? - ANSWER→repeating disaccharide unit (Protein-sugar molecules) (acidic sugar amino sugar) What are the MOST COMMON GAGs? - ANSWER→Hyaluronic acid (synovial fluid) →Chondroitin sulfate (cartilage, tendons, and ligaments) What bonds are characteristic of fats? - ANSWERester Triacylglycerols have ________________________ ESTERIFIED to a _________________________ backbone. - ANSWER→three FA's →glycerol backbone (acid + alcohol) What makes up an ester bond? - ANSWERalcohol + acid What are the most predominant form of fats/lipids in the body and in the diet? - ANSWERtriacylglycerols Glycerol comes from what? - ANSWERglucose What are fatty acids composed of? - ANSWER→nonpolar hydrocarbon (-CH2-) tails attached to →polar carboxylic acid group (COOH) (head) What do unsaturated fatty acids contain? - ANSWERdouble bonds Double bonds _________ the melting temperature of fatty acids and ____________ the freezing point. - ANSWERdecrease; raise What helps maintain the fluid nature of the membrane? - ANSWERthe presence of unsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipid bilayer

Naturally occurring double bonds exist in what configuration? - ANSWERcis- configuration What 3 things do hydrogenation accomplish? - ANSWER1-raise the melting point and decrease the freezing point 2 - increase the shelf life 3 - makes trans fats Oxidation involves ___________ of electrons or hydrogen - ANSWERloss Reduction involves _____________ of electrons or hydrogen - ANSWERgain To generate an unsaturated fat from a saturated fat-what process is needed? (OIL RIG)

• ANSWER→Oxidation b/c you want to fewer hydrogens (OIL) What are the essential fatty acids? - ANSWER→linoleic acid →linolenic acid →arachidonic acid Where is linoleic(Omega-6) found? - ANSWERsunflower, safflower, corn oil Where is linolenic (Omega-3) found? - ANSWERflax oil Where is arachidonic acid (Omega-6) found? - ANSWERanimal products (dairy products & red meat) Arachidonic acid is the precursor to what? - ANSWERprostaglandins T/F The more unsaturated an oil is the greater chance to go rancid (perioxidation) - ANSWERTrue more C=C therefore greater chance to go rancid Most rancid would be what? - ANSWER→PUFA's the MUFA's (anyone know what these stand for?) What is the most and 2nd most saturated fats? - ANSWER→1-coconut oil →2-palm kernel oil

What fatty acid makes up 55-80% of olive oil? - ANSWEROleic acid (Omega-9) Every 2 carbons in fat get how many Acetyl CoA? - ANSWER What are the saturated fats we're responsible for? - ANSWER→auric acid →myristic acid →palmitic →stearic What are the unsaturated fats we're responsible for? - ANSWER→loleic acid →linoleic →linolenic (alpha and gamma) →arachidonic Laurie acid has how many carbons? - ANSWER→ saturated Myristic acid has how many carbons? - ANSWER→ saturated Palmitic acid has how many carbons? - ANSWER→ saturated Stearic acid has how many carbons? - ANSWER→ saturated Oleic acid has how many carbons? - ANSWER→18 (1 C=C) unsaturated Linoleic acid has how many carbons? - ANSWER→18 (2 C=C) unsaturated Linolenic (alpha & gamma form) has how many carbons? - ANSWER→18 (3 C=C) unsaturated Arachidonic has how many carbons? - ANSWER→20 (4 C=C) unsaturated What are phospholipids comprised of? - ANSWER→2 FA's

→polar head group that is esterified to glycerol- 3 - phosphate For phospholipids: At what carbons are FA chains esterified at? - ANSWER→C-1 & C- 2 (of the glycerol- 3 - phosphate) For phospholipids: the alcohol head group is esterified to what group and on what carbon? - ANSWER→phosphate group →C- 3 T/F Phospholipids are the major components of the membrane lipids. - ANSWERTrue What are the 2 main classes of non glycerol lipids? - ANSWER→sphingolipids →steroids Sphingolipids have what kind of backbone? - ANSWERsphingosine backbone What is sphingomyelin important? - ANSWERit's the major lipid component of the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates cells of the nervous system What is sphingomyelinase? - ANSWERit's a lysosomal enzyme involved in the degradation of sphingomyelin What happens when there is a deficiency of sphingomyelinase? - ANSWERNeimann- Pick disease What is the most abundant sterol in humans? - ANSWERcholesterol Cholesterol is derived from what? - ANSWERacetyl CoA Acetyl-CoA →HMG-CoA →Mevalonate → Squalene → Cholesterol → - ANSWERsteroid hormones What is the function of HMG-CoA reductase? - ANSWER→the rate-limiting enzyme of cholesterol synthesis (rate-limiting enzyme is inhibited by increased levels of cholesterol) HMG-CoA reductase converts HMG-CoA --->? - ANSWERmevalonate What is the rate-limiting enzyme in steroid biosynthesis? - ANSWERdesmolase Desmolase enzyme converts cholesterol -->? - ANSWERpregnenolone Pregnenolone is then converted to what? - ANSWER→progesterone (derives corticosterone, aldosterone, cortisol, testosterone and estradiol)

Cholesterol is eliminated in the? - ANSWERfeces Cholesterol --> bile salts --> - ANSWER→reabsorbed OR →GI system --> feces Fiber binds bile salts to do what? - ANSWERincrease elimination of cholesterol What is the function of HMG-CoA synthase? - ANSWERrate limiting enzyme of Ketone body synthesis What are lipoproteins comprised of? - ANSWERa monolayer shell of polar lipids and proteins that surround a hydrophobic core containing cholesterol esters and/or triglycerides Chylomicrons are produced and secreted from what? - ANSWERintestinal mucosal cells Chylomicrons are produced in response to what? - ANSWER→the dietary intake of fats (dietary fats are absorbed and repackaged as chylomicrons) Chylomicrons carry what to peripheral tissues? - ANSWER→triacylglycerides (carry dietary fats and cholesterol) VLDL is synthesized and secreted from what? - ANSWERthe liver VLDL transports what to peripheral tissues from the liver? - ANSWER→triacylglycerides (transports endogenous TAG's) LDL is derived from what? - ANSWERVLDL (VLDL→IDL→LDL) What is the function of LDL? - ANSWER→transport cholesterol from the liver to the peripheral tissues →LDL: Leaves Da Liver; LDL is Hell (Sue Ray-ism) What contains the greatest amount of cholesterol? - ANSWERLDL HDL is synthesized and secreted where? - ANSWERthe liver What is the function of HDL? - ANSWERto transport cholesterol from peripheral tissues back to the liver

What happens when there is a high plasma levels of LDL? - ANSWERincreased risk of heart disease What happens when there is high plasma levels of HDL? - ANSWERdecreased risk of heart disease What is lipoprotein lipase required for? - ANSWERuptake of triglycerides/fatty acids that are carried by VLDL and chylomicrons Density of Lipoprotein is equal to what? - ANSWERDensity of Lipoprotein = Protein/TAG ratio What is the density of lipoprotein molecules from greatest to least? - ANSWER→HDL →LDL →IDL →VLDL →Chylomicrons What are the components of RNA and DNA? - ANSWER→phosphate →pentose sugar (ribose for RNA, deoxyribose for DNA) →nitrogenous base The formation of deoxyribose from ribose is what type of reaction? - ANSWERReduction ('gain' a hydrogen-RIG) The nitrogenous base purines include what? - ANSWER→adenine and guanine (pure as gold/all girls are pure) Nitrogenous bases: What are the 3 a.a.'s derived from purine nitrogen? - ANSWER→aspartate →glycine →glutamine What are intermediates in purine metabolism that lead to uric acid? - ANSWER→hypoxanthine →xanthine

What is the function of xanthine oxidase? - ANSWERrate limiting enzyme of purine breakdown What are the three pyrimidines involved w/ nitrogenous bases? - ANSWER→thymine(DNA only) →uracil (RNA only) →cytosine (king TUC) What are the components of nucleosides? - ANSWERpentose sugar + nitrogenous base What are the components of nucleotides? - ANSWERpentose sugar + nitrogenous base

• phosphate What are the purines involved with DNA? - ANSWERadenine & guanine What are the pyrimidines involved with DNA? - ANSWERcytosine and thymine What is DNA associated with? - ANSWER→Histones (histones are the chief component of Chromatin. →They act as spools around which DNA winds) What is the base pairing in DNA? - ANSWER→adenine + thymine (A-T) [At - The] →guanine + cytosine (G-C) [Golf - Course] What is the base pairing in RNA? - ANSWER→adenine + uracil (A-U) →guanine + cytosine (G-C) →RNA is single stranded so there is no base pairing Phosphodiester bonds are in what? - ANSWERboth DNA and RNA What carbon's has the phosphodiester bond linkage? - ANSWER→3' carbon of one sugar molecule and the 5' carbon of another →(DNA=deoxyribose; RNA=ribose) What kind of bonds do phosphodiester have? - ANSWERcovalent bonds T/F Hydrogen bonds are only in DNA but NOT RNA. (DNA alpha helix) - ANSWERTrue

Where does DNA replication occur? - ANSWERin the nucleus Replication occurs during what phase of the cell cycle? - ANSWERS phase What direction is DNA in for replication? - ANSWER5' → 3' direction T/F DNA replication is anti-parallel and non-comparable - ANSWERTrue What is the enzyme for DNA replication? - ANSWERDNA polymerase Transcription is what and occurs where? - ANSWERDNA →mRNA occurs in the nucleus DNA is transcribed to what? - ANSWERmRNA Transcription goes in what direction? - ANSWER5' → 3' direction Transcription mRNA repeated info: - ANSWER-single-stranded

• contains ribose as the pentose sugar
• uracil instead of thymine Transcription Every three bases in the mRNA is called what? - ANSWERcodon Transcription A codon encodes for what? - ANSWERa single amino acid What is the enzyme used during transcription? - ANSWERRNA Polymerase Transcription: What is the 1st amino acid always coded for? - ANSWERmethionine Transcription: What are the start codons? - ANSWERAUG, GUG Transcription What are the stop codons? - ANSWERUAA, UGA, UAG Where does translation(mRNA-->protein) occurs? - ANSWERcytoplasm Translation occurs on what? - ANSWERthe rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) What does translation involve? - ANSWERmRNA, transfer RNA (tRNA) & ribosomes

In translation the ribosomes surround the mRNA and expose what? - ANSWERexpose 2 codons at a time Translation The codon of the mRNA is recognized by the anticodon present on what molecule? - ANSWERtRNA molecule tRNA molecules are also bound to what? - ANSWERa specific amino acid The enzyme peptidyl transferase links two a.a.'s together begins what? - ANSWERthe synthesis of a polypeptide chain (a protein) In what direction do ribosomes read mRNA for protein synthesis? - ANSWER5'→3' direction Protein synthesis synthesis proceeds from N-terminum to what? - ANSWERC-terminus Protein synthesis: What is always added @ C-terminus during translation? - ANSWERalways add amino acid Define catabolic: - ANSWER→breakdown of macromolecules to simple precursors →(used to generate ATP & reducing power NADH, FAD2) What are some examples of catabolic pathways? - ANSWER→glycolysis →lypolysis (FA oxidation) →glycogenolysis (glycogen breakdown) Define anabolic: - ANSWERsynthesis of macromolecules from simple precursors What drive anabolic reactions? - ANSWER→ATP →reducing power (generated from catabolic pathways) What are examples of anabolic pathways? - ANSWER→gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose) →lipogenesis (FA synthesis) →glycogenesis (glycogen synthesis)

→nucleic acid synthesis Function of phosphatase: - ANSWERremoved phosphate Function of phosphorylase: - ANSWERadds phosphate Function of kinase: - ANSWERmoves phosphate around Function of dehydrogenase: - ANSWERRedox rxns Function of Carboxylase: - ANSWERadds a carbon Function of Decarboxylase: - ANSWERremoves a carbon Where does glycolysis occur? - ANSWERcytosol(cytoplasm) What results from aerobic glycolysis? - ANSWERaerobic = glucose →2 pyruvate (pyruvic acid) What results from anaerobic glycolysis? - ANSWERanaerobic = glucose →2 lactate (lactic acid) How are hormones involved with glycolysis? - ANSWER→stimulated by insulin →inhibited by glucagon T/F All regulatory enzymes are irreversible - ANSWERTrue Glycolysis What is the step 1 with hexokinase? - ANSWERglucose + ATP →glucose- 6 - phosphate

• ADP Glycolysis What is the step 3 with PFK(Phosphofructokinase)? - ANSWER→rate limiting enzyme of glycolysis →fructose- 6 - phosphate + ATP → fructose-1,6-bisphosphate + ADP Glycolysis What is the step 9 with Pyruvate kinase? - ANSWER→phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) + ADP →pyruvate + ATP →net gain of ATP at this reaction