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Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 4 Study Review, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Microbiology

A comprehensive review of the key concepts and terminology related to the different types of tissues in the human body, including epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular tissues. It covers the structure, function, and characteristics of various tissue types, such as adipose tissue, cartilage, bone, and muscle. The document also discusses the three major cell lineages (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) and how they develop into different cell types and tissues. Additionally, it covers the two main types of tissue membranes (connective tissue membranes and epithelial membranes) and their specific functions. This detailed review of tissue anatomy and physiology would be highly valuable for students studying human biology, anatomy, or physiology, as it provides a solid foundation for understanding the fundamental building blocks of the human body.

Typology: Study Guides, Projects, Research

2023/2024

Available from 08/28/2024

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Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 4 Study Review

  1. Adipocytes: lipid storage cells
  2. adipose tissue: specialized areolar tissue rich in stored fat
  3. Anchoring junction: mechanically attaches adjacent cells to each other or to the basement membrane
  4. Apical: that part of a cell or tissue which, in general, faces an open space
  5. apocrine secretion: release of a substance along with the apical portion of the cell
  6. Apoptosis: programmed cell death
  7. areolar connective tissue: Also called loose connective tissue; a type of connec- tive tissue proper that shows little specialization with cells dispersed in the matrix
  8. Astrocyte: Star- shaped cell in the central nervous system that regulates ions and uptake and/or breakdown of some neurotransmitters and contributes to the formation of the blood-brain barrier
  9. atrophy: Loss of mass and function
  10. basement membrane: In epithelial tissue, a thin layer of fibrous

material that anchors the epithelial tissue to the underlying g connective tissue; made up of the basal lamina and reticular lamina

  1. cardiac muscle: heart muscle, under involuntary control, composed of striated cells that attach to form fibers, each cell contains a single nucleus, contracts autonomously
  2. Cell junction: Point of cell-to-cell contact that connects one cell to another in a tissue
  3. Chondrocytes: cells of cartilage
  4. clotting: also called coagulation; complex process by which blood components form a plug to stop bleeding
  5. collagen fibers: Flexible fibrous proteins test give connective tissue tensile strength
  6. connective tissue: Types of tissue that serves to hold in place, connect, and integrate the body's organs and systems
  7. Connective tissue membrane: connective tissue that encapsulates organs and lines movable joints
  8. connective tissue proper: connective tissue containing a viscous matrix, fibers, and cells.
  9. cutaneous membrane: skin; epithelial tissue made up of a stratified

squamous epithelial cells that cover the outside of the body

  1. dense connective tissue: connective tissue proper that contains many fibers that provide both elasticity and protection
  2. Ectoderm: outermost embryonic germ layer from which the epidermis and the nervous tissue derive
  3. elastic cartilage: type of cartilage, with elastin as the major protein, character- ized by rigid support as well as elasticity
  4. Elastic fiber: fibrous protein within connective tissue that contains a high per- centage of the protein elastin that allows the fibers to stretch and return to original size
  5. Endocrine gland: Groups of cells that release chemical signals into the inter- cellular fluid to be picked up and transported to their target organs by blood
  6. Endoderm: innermost embryonic germ layer from which most of the digestive system and lower respiratory system derive
  7. endothelium: tissue that lines vessels of the lymphatic and cardiovascular system, made up of a simple squamous epithelium
  8. Epithelial membrane: epithelium attached to a layer of connective tissue
  1. epithelial tissue: type of tissue that serves primarily as a covering or lining of body parts, protecting the body; it also functions in absorption, transport, and secretion
  2. Exocrine gland: group of epithelial cells that secrete substances through ducts that open to the skin or to internal body surfaces that lead to the exterior of the body
  3. Fibroblast: most abundant cell type in connective tissue, secretes protein fibers and matrix into the extracellular space
  4. Fibrocartilage: tough form of cartilage, made of thick bundles of collagen fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate ground substance
  5. fibrocyte: Less active form of fibroblast
  6. fluid connective tissue: specialized cells that circulate in a watery fluid contain- ing salts, nutrients, and dissolved proteins
  7. Gap junction: allows cytoplasmic communications to occur between cells
  8. Goblet cell: unicellular gland found in columnar epithelium that secretes mu- cous
  9. ground substance: fluid or semi-fluid portion of the matrix
  10. Histamine: chemical compound released by mast cells in response to

injury that causes vasodilation and endothelium permeability

  1. Histology: Microscopic study of tissue architecture, organization, and function
  2. holocrine secretion: release of a substance caused by the rupture of a gland cell, which becomes part of the secretion
  3. hyaline cartilage: most common type of cartilage, smooth and made of short collagen fibers embedded in a chondroitin sulfate ground substance
  4. inflammation: response of tissue to injury
  5. Lacunae: Small spaces in bone or cartilage tissue that cells occupy
  6. lamina propria: areolar connective tissue underlying a mucous membrane
  7. loose connective tissue: (also, areolar tissue) type of connective tissue proper that shows little specialization with cells dispersed in the matrix
  8. Matrix: extracellular material which is produced by the cells embedded in it, containing ground substance and fibers
  9. merocrine secretion: release of a substance from a gland via exocytosis
  1. mesenchymal cells: Adult stem cell from which most connective tissue cells are derived
  2. mesenchyme: embryonic tissue from which connective tissue cells derive
  3. mesoderm: middle embryonic germ layer from which connective tissue, muscle tissue, and some epithelial tissue derive
  4. Mesothelium: simple squamous epithelial tissue which covers the major body cavities and is the epithelial portion of serous membranes
  5. mucous connective tissue: specialized loose connective tissue present in the umbilical cord
  6. mucous gland: group of cells that secrete mucous, a thick, slippery substance that keeps tissues moist and acts as a lubricant
  7. mucous membrane: tissue membrane that is covered by protective mucous and lines tissue exposed to the outside environment
  8. muscle tissue: type of tissue that is capable of contracting and generating tension in response to stimulation; produces movement.
  9. Myelin: layer of lipid inside some neuroglial cells that wraps around the axons of some neurons
  10. myocyte: muscle cell
  1. necrosis: accidental death of cells and tissues
  2. nervous tissue: type of tissue that is capable of sending and receiving impulses through electrochemical signals
  3. Neuroglia: supportive neural cells
  4. Neuron: excitable neural cell that transfer nerve impulses
  5. Oligodendrocytes: neuroglial cell that produces myelin in the brain
  6. parenchyma: functional cells of a gland or organ, in contrast with the supportive or connective tissue of a gland or organ
  7. primary union: condition of a wound where the wound edges are close enough to be brought together and fastened if necessary, allowing quicker and more thor- ough healing
  8. pseudostratified columnar epithelium: tissue that consists of a single layer of irregularly shaped and sized cells that give the appearance of multiple layers; found in ducts of certain glands and the upper respiratory tract
  9. reticular fibers: fine fibrous protein, made of collagen subunits, which cross-link to form supporting "nets" within connective tissue
  10. reticular lamina: matrix containing collagen and elastin secreted by connective tissue; a component of the basement membrane
  1. reticular tissue: type of loose connective tissue that provides a supportive framework to soft organs, such as lymphatic tissue, spleen, and the liver
  2. Schwann cells: neuroglial cell that produces myelin in the peripheral nervous system
  3. secondary union: wound healing facilitated by wound contraction
  4. serous gland: group of cells within the serous membrane that secrete a lubri- cating substance onto the surface
  5. serous membrane: type of tissue membrane that lines body cavities and lubri- cates them with serous fluid
  6. simple columnar epithelium: tissue that consists of a single layer of col- umn-like cells; promotes secretion and absorption in tissues and organs
  7. simple cuboidal epithelium: tissue that consists of a single layer of cube-shaped cells; promotes secretion and absorption in ducts and tubules
  8. simple squamous epithelium: tissue that consists of a single layer of flat scale-like cells; promotes diffusion and filtration across surface
  1. skeletal muscle: usually attached to bone, under voluntary control, each cell is a fiber that is multinucleated and striated
  2. smooth muscle: under involuntary control, moves internal organs, cells contain a single nucleus, are spindle-shaped, and do not appear striated; each cell is a fiber
  3. stratified columnar epithelium: tissue that consists of two or more layers of column-like cells, contains glands and is found in some ducts
  4. stratified cuboidal epithelium: tissue that consists of two or more layers of cube-shaped cells, found in some ducts
  5. stratified squamous epithelium: tissue that consists of multiple layers of cells with the most apical being flat scale-like cells; protects surfaces from abrasion
  6. Striation: alignment of parallel actin and myosin filaments which form a banded pattern
  7. supportive connective tissue: type of connective tissue that provides strength to the body and protects soft tissue
  8. synovial membrane: connective tissue membrane that lines the cavities of freely movable joints, producing synovial fluid for lubrication
  1. tight junction: forms an impermeable barrier between cells
  2. Tissue: group of cells that are similar in form and perform related functions
  3. tissue membrane: thin layer or sheet of cells that covers the outside of the body, organs, and internal cavities
  4. totipotent: embryonic cells that have the ability to differentiate into any type of cell and organ in the body
  5. transitional epithelium: form of stratified epithelium found in the urinary tract, characterized by an apical layer of cells that change shape in response to the presence of urine
  6. vasodilation: widening of blood vessels
  7. wound contraction: process whereby the borders of a wound are physically drawn together
  8. 4 broad categories of tissues: 1. Epithelial tissue 2.Connective tissue 3.Nervous tissue 4.Muscular tissue
  9. 3 major cell lineages: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
  10. ectoderm develop into: skin cells, neurons, pigment cell
  1. mesoderm develop into: cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, RBC, tubule of kid- ney, smooth muscle
  2. endoderm develop into: lung cell, thyroid cell, pancreatic cell
  3. 2 types of tissue membranes: connective tissue, epithelial membranes
  4. connective tissue membrane: synovial membrane connective tissue only; lines fibrous capsules surrounding joints; secretes a lubricat- ing fluid
  5. epithelial membranes: mucous, serous, cutaneous
  6. mucous membrane: found in digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts
  7. serous membrane: found in closed ventral body cavities
  8. cutaneous membrane: skin
  9. Hyaluronan: traps available water to form synovial fluid, a natural lubricant that enables bones o a joint to move freely
  10. lamina propria: "own layer" helps support the fragile epithelial layer
  11. coelomic cavities: cavities that do not open to the outside of the body
  12. serous fluid: secreted by squamous mesothelium; lubricates

the membrane; reduces abrasion and friction between organs

  1. basal lamina: a mixture of glycoproteins and collagen, provides an attachment site for the epithelium, separating it from underlying connective tissue
  2. 3 basic types of cell junctions: tight, anchoring, gap
  3. tight junctions: separates the cells into apical and basal compartments; no extracellular space between cells; movement of substances through extracellular space is blocked
  4. anchoring junctions: fasten cells together into sheets
  5. 3 types of anchoring junctions: desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, adherens
  6. Desmosomes: occur in patches on the membranes of cells; adhesion mole- cule = cadherin
  7. Hemidesmosomes: link cells to exrtracellular matrix; ex. basil lamina adhesion molecule = integrins
  8. adherens: use either cadherin or integrin; characterized by the presence of actin located on the cytoplasmic surface of the cell membrane; junctions influence the shape and folding of epithelial tissue;

adhesion molecule = actin

  1. actin: contractile protein
  2. gap junction: forms intercellular passageway between the membranes of adjacent cells to facilitate the movement of small molecules and ions
  3. classification of epithelial tissue: shape of cell and number of cell layers
  4. shapes of epithelial tissue: squamous, cuboidal, columnar
  5. Layers of epithelial tissue: simple, stratified, pseudostratified, transitional
  6. simple squamous epithelium: found in alveoli in lungs, segments of kidney tubules, lining of capillaries
  7. Mesothelium: primary function to provide a smooth and protective surface on the serous membrane
  8. simple columnar epithelium: found in lining of some sections of digestive system and parts of the female reproductive tract
  9. ciliated columnar epithelium: simple columnar epithelial cells with cilia on apical surface; found in lining of fallopian tubes and parts of respiratory system
  1. stratified epithelium: consists of several stacked layers of cells, protects against physical and chemical wear and tear; name by shape of cells in apical layer
  2. stratified squamous epithelium: most common type of stratified; apical layer is squamous, but basal layer is columnar or cuboidal
  3. stratified squamous epithelium: found in esophagus, mouth, vagina
  4. stratified cuboidal epithelium and stratified columnar epithelium: uncom- mon in human body; can be found in certain glands and ducts
  5. stratified cuboidal epithelium: found in sweat glands and salivary glands
  6. stratified columnar epithelium: found in male urethra
  7. Gland: structure made up of one or more cells modified to synthesize and secrete chemical substances
  8. types of glands: exocrine and endocrine
  9. hormones: released into interstitial fluid, diffused into the bloodstream, and delivered to targets ex. anterior pituitary, thymus, gonads
  10. Unicellular exocrine structure: scattered single cells; found in

mucous mem- branes of small/large intestine ex. goblet cells

  1. Multicellular exocrine structure: known as serous glands; line the internal cavities of the abdomen, chest and release their secretions directly into the cavity
  2. single duct: simple gland
  3. compound gland: branched duct
  4. tubular glands: ducts can be straight or coiled
  5. alveolar (acinar): tubes that form pockets
  6. tubuloalveolar: combinations of tubes and pockets
  7. simple alveolar gland: not found in adults
  8. simple branched alveolar gland: sebaceous (oil) glands
  9. compound alveolar (acinar) gland: mammary glands
  10. simple tubular gland: intestinal glands
  11. simple coiled tubular gland: merocrine sweat gland
  12. simple branched tubular gland: gastric glands, mucous glands of esopha- gus, tongue, duodenum
  13. compound tubular gland: musous gland (in mouth); bulb urethral glands (male reproductive system); testes (seminiferous tubules)
  1. compound tubuloalveolar gland: salivary glands, glands of respiratory pas- sages, pancreas
  2. Exocrine glands cane be classified by: 1. mode of secretion; 2. nature of substances released; 3. structure of gland; 4. shape of duct
  3. merocrine sectretion: most common type of secretion; enclosed in vesicles that move to apical surface where the contents are released by exocytosis ex: eccrine glands that produce sweat
  4. apocrine secretion: example: sweat glands in axillary and genital region re- lease fatty secretions that local bacteria break down causing body odor
  5. holocrine secretion: ex: sebaceous glands that produce the oils on the skin and hair
  6. serous glands produce: watery, blood-plasma like secretions rich in enzymes such as alpha amylase; ex: salivary glands in mouth
  7. mucous glands produce: watery to viscous products rich in the glycoprotein mucin; ex: salivary glands in mouth
  8. mixed exocrine glands contain: both serous and mucous glands
  9. 3 common characteristics of connective tissue: cells; large amounts of amorphous ground substance; protein fibers
  1. functions of connective tissue: supprot and connect other tissues; protec- tion; transport of fluid; surplus energy store; thermal insulation
  2. Mucous Connective Tissue (Wharton's Jelly): embryonic connective tissue in the umbilical chord
  3. 3 broad categories of connective tissue: connective tissue proper, support- ing connective tissue, fluid connective tissue
  4. 2 Types of Connective Bone Tissue: dense and loose
  5. 3 types of loose connective tissue proper: areolar, adipose, reticular
  6. 2 types of dense connective tissue proper: regular elastic and irregular elastic
  7. 3 types of cartilage connective tissue: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
  8. 2 types of bone connective tissue: compact bone and cancellous bone
  9. 2 types of supportive connective tissue: cartilage and bone
  10. 2 types of fluid connective tissue: blood and lymph
  11. Fixed cells of connective tissue: fibrobytes, adipocytes,

mesenchymal

  1. fibroblast: most abundant cell in connective tissue proper, produce proteins and polysaccharides which become ground substance
  2. fibrocyte: "a less active form of fibroblast, is the second most common cell type in connective tissue proper.
  3. adipocytes: store lipids as droplets that fill most of cytoplasm
  4. 2 types of adipocytes: white and brown
  5. White adipocytes: store lipids as a single large drop and are metabolically less active
  6. Brown adipocytes: store lipids as many droplets, and have high metabolic activity
  7. mesenchymal cells: multipotent adult stem cell tha can differentiate into any type of CT cell needed for healing and repair
  8. Macrophages: large cell derived from monocyte; essential compontent of immune system; releases cytokines that recruit other cells to infected sites and stimulate their activities
  9. roaming macrophages: move rapidly by amoebid movement, engulfing infec- tion agents and cellular debris
  1. fixed macrophages: residents in tissues and organs
  2. mast cell: found in CTP; has many cytoplasmic granules that contain chemical signals histamine and heparin
  3. histamine: Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries; also triggers allergic response
  4. 3 main fibers secreted by fibroblasts: collagen, elastic fibers, reticular fibers
  5. elastic fibers: after being stretched or compressed will return to original shape; found in skin and elastic ligaments of vertebral column
  6. reticular fiber: fine fibrous protein, made of collagen subunits, which cross-link to form supporting "nets" within connective tissue; found in liver and spleen
  7. white adipose tissue: can appear yellow due to carotene; contributes mostly to lipid storage; can serve as insulation; protects kidneys and back of eye
  8. brown adipose tissue: more common in infants; mainly in neck and clavicular region; thermogenic meaning it releases metabolic eat rather than producing ATP
  1. areolar tissue: shows little specialization; contains all cell types and fibers; distributed in random web-like fashion; underlies most epithelial membranes
  2. functions of areolar tissue: fills spaces between muscle fibers; surrounds blood and lymph vessels; supports organs in abdominal cavity
  3. regular dense connective tissue: fibers run parallel for greater strength (lig- aments and tendons); contains elastin fibers and collagen fibers; ligaments in vocal folds and between vertebrae are elastic
  4. irregular dense connective tissue: direction of fibers is random giving greater strength in all directions and less in a particular direction; ex: dermis of skin, arterial walls
  5. lacunae: space occupied by chondrocytes
  6. Perichondrium: Dense irregular connective tissue membrane covering carti- lage
  7. hyaline cartilage: Most common type of cartilage; it is found on the ends of long bones, ribs, and nose
  8. Fibrocartilage: cartilage that contains fibrous bundles of collagen, such as that of the intervertebral disks in the spinal cord.
  1. Elastic Carilage: contains elastic fibers, collagen, and proteoglycans; gives rigid support and elasticity; found in external ear
  2. osteocytes: mature bone cells
  3. cancellous bone: spongy, porous, bone tissue in the inner part of a bone
  4. trabeculae: arches of bone proper
  5. compact bone: Hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone
  6. cells in blood: erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
  7. Erythrocytes: red blood cells: transport O2 and CO2
  8. leukocytes: white blood cells, defend body against infection and disease
  9. Platelets: cell fragments involved in clotting
  10. lymph: contains liquid matrix and WBC
  11. lymphatic capillaries: extremely permeable; allowing molecules to enter blood that could not otherwise directly enter the bloodstream
  12. excitable muscle tissue: responds to stimuli
  13. contractile muscle tissue: shorten and generate a pulling force
  1. voluntary movement: under conscious control
  2. involuntary movement: not under conscious control
  3. skeletal muscle: 40% of body mass
  4. myocyte: develops from myoblasts; number remains consistent throughout life
  5. skeletal muscle appearance: arranged in bundles surrounded by connective tissue; appear striated with many nuclei
  6. Striation of skeletal muscle: muscle is straited because a reaccuring pattern of dark bands (myosin A bands) and light bands (actin I bands)
  7. cardiomyocytes: cardiac muscle cells; single cell typically with one centrally located nucleus
  8. intercalated discs: specialized connections between myocardial cells contain- ing gap junctions and anchoring junctions
  9. characteristics of nervous tissue: excitable; capable of sending and receiv- ing electrochemical signals that provide the body with information
  10. cells of nervous tissue: neuron; neuroglia; astrocyte; oligodendrocyte; Schwann cell
  1. action potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
  2. Parts of a neuron: cell body, dendrites, axon
  3. cell body of neuron: contains nucleus and organelles
  4. dendrites of neuron: branch off cell body, appear as thin extensions
  5. axon of neuron: "long tail" that extends from neuron body; can be wrapped in myelin
  6. synapse: Gap between neurons
  7. neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps be- tween neurons
  8. Types of neurons: multipolar, bipolar, unipolar
  9. multipolar neuron: A neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system.
  10. bipolar neuron: one axon and one dendrite
  11. unipolar neuron: a neuron with one process extending from its cell body
  12. microglia: protect nervous system against infection; not nervous tissue be- cause they are related to macrophages
  1. Schwann cell: produces myelin in the peripheral nervous system
  2. function of inflammation: limits the extent of the injury; partially or fully eliminates the cause of injury; initiates repair and regeneration of damaged tissue
  3. acute inflammation: Minimal and short-lasting injury to tissue
  4. chronic inflammation: continuous injury or irritation to tissue
  5. 4 signs of inflammation: redness, heat, swelling, pain (sometimes also loss of function)
  6. regeneration: replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
  7. Senescence: the natural physical decline brought about by aging; experienced by all cells
  8. outward signs of aging: skin and other tissue become thinner, drier, and loses elasticity; hair turns grey; glasses and hearing aids; overall height decrease; nerves don't transmit with same speed and frequency; loss of memory and though clarity
  9. cellular level aging: telomeres shorten each time cells divide; as they do, cells are less able to divide and regenerate