ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: THE UNITY OF FORM AND FUNCTION CHAPTER 1/STUDY GUIDE, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Nursing

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: THE UNITY OF FORM AND

FUNCTION CHAPTER 1/STUDY GUIDE

1. Anatomy: The study of structure
2. Physiology: The study of function
3. When we study a structure, what do we want to know?: What does it do?
4. Inspection: simply looking at the body's appearance, as in performing a physical examination or making a clinical diagnosis from surface appearance.
5. Palpation: feeling a structure with the hands. example will be taking a pulse.
6. Auscultation: listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such as heart and lung sounds.
7. Percussion: the examiner taps on the body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of fluid or air
8. Dissection: carefully cutting and separating tissues to reveal their relationships
9. In many schools of science, what is one of the first steps in training stu- dents.: It's the dissection of the cadaver
10. Cadaver: A dead human body

11. Many insights into human structure are obtained from what?: Comparative Anatomy
12. Comparative Anatomy: the study of multiple species in order to examine simi- larities and differences and analyze evolutionary trends
13. Exploratory Surgery: opening the body and taking a look inside to see what was wrong and what could be done about it
14. Radiology: branch of medicine concerned with imaging
15. Gross Anatomy: structure that can be seen with the naked eye
16. Histology: the study of the microscopic structure of tissues
17. Cytology: study of structure and function of cells
18. Ultrastructure: refers to fine detail, down to the molecular level, revealed by the electron microscope
19. Neurophysiology: physiology of the nervous system
20. Endocrinology: study of the endocrine system physiology of hormones
21. Pathophysiology: the study of how disease processes affect the function of the body

mechanisms of disease

22. comparative physiology: the study of how different species have solved prob- lems of life such as water balance, respiration, and reproduction
23. What is the difference between anatomy and physiology? How do these two sciences support each other?: Anatomy is the study of structure while phys- iology is the study of function. The structure determines what function takes place. Physiology gives meaning to anatomy, while anatomy makes physiology possible.
24. Name the method that would be used for each of the following: listening to a patient for a heart murmur; studying the microscopic structure of the liver; microscopically examining liver tissue for signs of hepatitis; learning the blood vessels of a cadaver; and performing a breast self-examination.: - Auscultation (listening to natural sounds made by the body); histology (microscopic anatomy); histopathology (microscopic anatomy searching for

disease signs), cytol- ogy (study of structure and function of individual cells); palpation (feeling structure with hands)

25. As early as 3,000 years ago, what did physicians in Mesopotamia and Egypt treat patients with?: Herbal drugs, salts, physical therapy, and faith healing
26. Hippocrates: Father of Medicine; created Hippocratic Oaht He urged physicians to stop attributing disease to the activities of gods and demons and to seek their natural causes, which could afford the only rational basis for therapy.
27. Aristotle: A Greek Philosopher, taught Alexander the Great, started a famous school, studied with Plato One of the first philosophers to write about anatomy and physiology.

He believed that diseases and other natural events could have either supernatural causes, which he called theologi, or natural ones, which he called physici or physi- ologi

28. Claudius Galen: physician to the Roman gladiators, wrote the most influential medical textbook of the ancient era- a book worshipped to excess by medical professors for centuries to follow.
29. Maimonides: A Jewish scholar in Cordoba, Spain, who organized a collection of Jewish oral law.
30. Andreas Vesalius: a Flemish surgeon who is considered the father of modern anatomy (1514-1564) Taught anatomy in Italy.
31. William Harvey: English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood
32. Michael Servetus: Described the circulatory system of the lungs, explained how digestion is a source of heat for the body

33. Robert Hooke: Designed scientific instruments of various kinds, including the compound microscope.
34. Anthony van Leeuwenhoek: Invented a simple (single lens) microscope, orig- inally for the purpose of examining the weave of fabrics.
35. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann: concluded that all organisms were composed of cells
36. Cell Theory: idea that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things, and new cells are produced from existing cells
37. In what ways did the followers of Galen disregard his advice?: He advised them not to trust his observations and to explore it for themselves. His followers chose to take Galen's word on many things rather than exploring it on their own.
38. Describe two ways in which Vesalius improved education and set stan- dards that remain relevant today.: Vesalius broke with tradition by coming down from the cathedra and doing the dissections himself. He pointed out that much of the anatomy in Galen's book were wrong.

39. How is our concept of human form and function today affected by inventors from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries?: The improvement of the microscope has greatly affected the course of human research.
40. Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes: envisioned science as a far greater, systematic enterprise with enormous possibilities for human health and welfare
41. Scientific Method: Refers less to observational procedures than to certain habits of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, and honest analysis of one's observations and conclusions.
42. Inductive Method: a process of making numerous observations until one feels confident in drawing generalizations and predictions from them
43. hypothetico-deductive method: an investigator begins by asking a question and formulating a hypothesis
44. Elements of Experimental Design: sample size, controls, psychosomatic ef- fects, experimenter bias, statistical testing
45. Sample Size: The number of subjects used in an experiment or study. Generally, the larger the better.

46. Controls: Biomedical experiments require comparison between treated and untreated individuals so that we can judge whether the treatment has any effect.
47. Control Group: the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.
48. psychosomatic effects: effects of the subject's state of mind on his or her physiology
49. Experimenter Bias: a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expecta- tions or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
50. Double Blind Method: neither the subject to whom a treatment is given nor the person giving it and recording the results knows whether that subject is receiving the experimental treatment or placebo
51. Statistical Testing: provides statement of probability that treatment was effec- tive
52. Peer Review: a review by people with similar professional qualification
53. Fact: information that has been objectively verified
54. Law of Nature: a generalization about the predictable ways in which matter and energy behave

55. Theory: An explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses
56. Describe the general process in the inductive method: Process of making numerous observations until one feels confident in the drawing generalizations and predictions from them
57. Describe some sources of potential bias in biomedical research: psycho- somatic effects
58. Is there more information in an individual scientific fact or in a theory? Explain.: In a theory because a theory is an explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypothesis.
59. Charles Darwin: English naturalist. He studied the plants and animals of South America and the Pacific islands, and in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) set forth his theory of evolution. Directly addressed the issue of human evolution and emphasized features of anato- my and behavior that reveal our relationship to other animals.
60. Evolution: a change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms over time

61. Evolution works largely through the principle of what?: Natural Selection
62. Selection Pressures: natural forces that promote the reproductive success of some individuals more than others
63. Adaptations: features of anatomy, physiology, and behavior that have evolved in response to these selection pressures and enable the organism to cope with the challenges of its environment
64. Model: An animal species or strain that is selected for research on a particular problem.
65. Stereoscopic: depth perception
66. Bipedalism: walking on two legs and feet

67. Evolutionary Medicine: analyzes how human disease and dysfunctions can be traced to differences between the artificial environment in which we now live, and the prehistoric environment to which Homo sapiens was biologically adapted
68. Define adaptation and selection pressure. Why are these concepts impor- tant in understanding human anatomy and physiology?: Adaptation = features of an organism's anatomy, physiology, and behavior that have evolved in response to selection pressures and enable the organism to cope with challenges of its environment. Selection Pressure = Natural forces that promote the reproductive success of some individuals more than others. We have to understand how the body and its functions work in order to comprehend the concepts of human anatomy and physiology.
69. Organism: single, complete individual
70. Organ System: A group of organs that work together to perform a major function such as circulation, respiration, or digestion.

71. Organ: a structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs a specific function for the body
72. Tissue: a mass of similar cells and cell products that forms a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function
73. Cells: smallest unit of life
74. Organelles: microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions

75. Organelles and other cellular components are composed of

what?: Mole- cules

76. Macromolecules: A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules
77. Atoms: Building blocks of matter
78. Reductionism: The theory that a large, complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its simpler components
79. Holism: the complementary theory that there are "emergent properties" of the whole organism that cannot be predicted from the properties of its separate parts

80. In the hierarchy of human structure, what is the level

between organ system and tissue? Cell and molecule?: Organ

and Organelle

81. How are the tissues relevant to the definition of an organ?: An organ is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out particular functions.
82. Why is reductionism a necessary but not sufficient point of view for fully understanding a patient's illness?: Reductionism is a theory that a large, complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its simplest components.
83. Why should medical students observe multiple cadavers and not be satis- fied to dissect only one?: Some anatomy textbooks can easily give the impression that everybody's internal anatomy is the same when the common structure is only about 70% the same.
84. Organization: living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things

85. cellular composition: living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells
86. Metabolism: Living things take in molecules from the environment and chem- ically change them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide them with energy the sum of all chemical processes that occur in an organism
87. Responsiveness and Movement: the ability of organisms to sense and react to stimuli
88. Homeostasis: Although the environment around an organism changes, the organism maintains relatively stable internal conditions. Examples include a stable temperature, blood pressure, and body weight
89. Development: Any change in form or function over the lifetime of an organism.
90. Reproduction: All living organisms can produce copies of themselves.
91. Evolution (Second Definition): All living species exhibit genetic change from generation to generation and therefore evolve.

92. Claude Bernard and Walter Cannon: observed that the internal conditions of the body remain quite constant even when external conditions vary greatly
93. dynamic equilibrium: internal state of the body
94. set point: the point at which your "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore the lost weight
95. Negative Feedback: A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counter- acts the initial fluctuation.
96. Feedback Loops: feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that trig- gered them
97. Receptor: structure that senses change in the body
98. Effector: an organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus.
99. positive feedback: self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even greater change in the same direction
100. Gradient: A difference in concentration, pressure, or electrical charge between two regions.

101. Pressure Gradient: the amount of pressure change occurring over a given distance
102. List four biological criteria of life and one clinical criterion. Explain how a person is clinically dead but biologically alive.: Organization, Cellular compo- sition, development, reproduction A person who has shown no brain waves for 24 hours, and has no reflexes, reparation, or heart beat other than what is provided by artificial life can be declared legally dead.
103. What is meant by dynamic equilibrium?: Balanced changes
104. Explain why stabilizing mechanisms are called negative feedback: nega- tive feedback is the key mechanism for maintaining health
105. Eponyms: terms coined from the names of people
106. Acronyms: abbreviations that stand in for common phrases
107. explain why modern anatomical and terminology is so heavily based on Greek and Latin.: scientific investigation first began in Greece and Rome

108. Distinguish between an eponym and an acronym, and

explain why eponyms and acronyms present difficulties for

interpreting anatomical terms.-

: Eponym = a word derived from a person's name Acronym = a set of initials representing a name this presents a problem because different letters stand for different words and you may have a different answer then what you are supposed to have

109. Developmental Biology: The complete development of an individual from fertilization to death
110. Cell Biology: Study of cellular structure and functions
111. Systemic Anatomy: study of the specific systems of the body such as the nervous or respiratory systems
112. Regional Anatomy: study of the specific regions of the body such as the head or chest.

113. Surface Anatomy: study of surface markings of the body to understand inter- nal anatomy through visualization and palpation
114. Six levels of the body's structural organization?: 1. chemical level 2.cellular level 3.tissue level 4.organ level 5.system level 6.organism level
115. Chemical Level: most basic structural level, includes atoms and molecules
116. Cellular Level: Cells are made up of molecules
117. Tissue Level: similar types of cells, with a common function, combine to form tissues; four primary tissue types comprise all organs of the human body
118. Organ Level: Organs are made up of different types of tissues
119. System Level: Group of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose.
120. Organism Level: Sum total of all structural levels working together to keep a living organism alive.

121. List the 11 body systems: integumentary system skeletal system muscular system nervous system endocrine system cardiovascular system lymphatic system and immunity digestive system urinary system reproductive systems
122. What organs are part of the muscular system?: Skeletal Muscles muscle tissue tendon s

ligame nts

123. What organs are part of the nervous system?: brain, spinal cord, nerves
124. What organs are part of the endocrine system?: Adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes.
125. What organs are part of the cardiovascular system?: Heart and blood vessels