Anatomy and Function of Bones: Structure, Growth, and Remodeling, Exams of Nursing

Download Anatomy and Function of Bones: Structure, Growth, and Remodeling and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!

APHY 101 Ivy Tech Lecture Exam 2 questions with answers

1. What are the functions of the skin?: Protection, body temperature regulation, cutaneous sensation, metabolic functions, blood reservoir, and excretion
2. What are the barriers provided by the skin?: Chemical, physical/mechanical, biological
3. chemical barrier protection example: The acid mantel protects against bacteria, doesn't allow them to multiple because of low pH
4. Physical/mechanical barrier protection example: physical protection from abrasion and bacteria, "water proofing"
5. biological barrier protection example: Dendritic cells (Langerhan cells) engulf foreign invaders, dermal macrophages are second line and get rid of bacteria and viruses; both can initiate immune response
6. How does the body regulate temperature?: blood vessels dilate when hot and constrict when cold
7. Types of cutaneous receptors: Tactile/Meissner's, lamellar/pacinian, hair follicle receptors, free nerve endings
8. Tactile (Meissner's) corpuscles: light touch receptors, located in dermal papillae
9. Lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles: deep pressure and vibration receptors located in reticular dermis
10. hair follicle receptors: sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb; simulated by bending a hair
11. free nerve endings: respond to pain and temperature
12. metabolic functions of skin: Synthesis of vitamin D; destruction of cancer- causing chemicals; activation of some steroid hormones
13. Blood Reservoir (Skin): skin holds 5% of the body's blood, vessels can be constricted to shunt blood to other organs
14. Excretion (skin function): excretes nitrogen, sweating causes salt and water loss
15. Layers of skin (Superficial to deep): epidermis, dermis, hypodermis (subcutaneous layer, not true skin)
16. Epidermis: outermost layer of the skin
17. dermis: makes up bulk of skin, composed mostly of dense connective tissue
    18. Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer): Composed of adipose tissue;

functions as a site for storage, shock absorber, insulates deep tissue, and anchors skin to underlying tissues.

19. Epidermis cell types: keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans/dendritic cells, merkel/tactile cells 20 Epidermis layers (superficial to deep): stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale (Come let's get some beers)
    21. Stratum corneum (horny layer): the most superficial layer of the epidermis consisting of 20-30 layers of dead cells, 3/4 of epidermal thickness, cells change via apoptosis, protects
    22. apoptosis: programmed cell death
    23. Stratum lucidum (clear layer): Only in thick skin (palms of hands and soles of feet) Thin, translucent band superficial to the stratum granulosum A few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes
    24. stratum granulosum (granular layer): 1-5 layers of cells. Granules in this layer help waterproof skin and help to form keratin in upper layers
    25. types of granules in stratum granulosum: kertohyaline granules and lamellar granules
    26. Stratum Spinosum (Prickly Layer): Several layers thick Cells contain web-like system of intermediate prekeratin filaments attached to desmosomes Abundant melanosomes and dendritic cells, which can be responsive to UV radiation and chromosome damage
    27. stratum basale (basal layer):
    28. Keratinocytes: produces keratin 29. Desmosomes:
    29. sensory nerve ending:
    30. Dendritic cell:
    31. melanin granule:
    32. melanocyte:
    33. Stratum spinosum:
    34. stratum granulosum:
    35. stratum corneum:
    36. dermis layers: papillary dermis and reticular dermis
    37. Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus): Sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb. Stimulated by bending a hair, lets you sense a bug on your skin

39. hair bulb: expanded area at deep end of follicle and contains papilla with matrix and melanocytes
40. what is the wall of a hair follicle composed of?: peripheral connective tissue sheath, epithelial root sheath
41. hair matrix: actively dividing area of bulb that produces hair cells 42 arrector pili muscle: small band of smooth muscle attached to follicle, contracts in response to fear and cold
42. hair papilla: dermal tissue containing a knot of capillaries that supplies nutrients to growing hair
43. papillary layer of dermis: Superficial layer of areolar connective tissue consisting of loose, interlacing collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels
44. dermal papillae: peglike projections in superficial region of dermis that sends fingerlike projections up into epidermis, contains capillary loops, free nerve endings, and touch receptors
45. reticular layer: Consists of coarse, dense fibrous connective tissue Many elastic fibers provide stretch-recoil properties Collagen fibers provide strength and resiliency
46. Cutaneous plexus: network of blood vessels between reticular layer and hypodermis
47. striae: silvery white scars caused by extreme stretching of skin (stretch marks) 49. eccrine sweat glands: abundant on palms, soles, and forehead, connects to pores on surface, used in temp regulation, secretes sweat
48. apocrine sweat glands: in armpit (axillary) and anogenital areas, secretes milky or yellowish sweat, causes BO, begin functioning at puberty
49. Modified apocrine glands: ceruminous glands (earwax), mammary glands (milk)
50. Melanin: Only pigment made in skin; made by melanocytes Two forms: reddish yellow to brownish black, synthesis driven by enzyme tryosinase 53. Carotene: yellow-orange pigment, found in certain plant products like carrots, accumulates in stratum corneum and in fat of subcutaneous tissue, most obvious in palms and soles, can be converted to vitamin A
51. Hemoglobin: red when fully oxygenated, bluish with decreased oxygen (cyanosis), gives pinkish hue to fair skin
52. Cyanosis: Blue skin color - low oxygenation of hemoglobin
53. erythema (redness): Fever, hypertension, inflammation, allergy
54. pallor or blanching (Pale): anemia, low blood pressure, fear, anger
55. Jaundice (yellow cast): liver disorders

59. Bronzing of skin: inadequate steroid hormones (ex. Addison's disease)
60. Bruises: clotted blood beneath skin, hematoma - clotted mass of blood
61. First-degree burn: epidermal damage only, localized redness, edema (swelling), and pain, partial-thickness
62. Second-degree burn: Epidermal and upper dermal damage, blisters appear, partial thickness 63 Third-degree burn: Skin color turns gray-white, cherry red, or blackened (charing) No edema is seen and area is not painful because nerve endings are destroyed Skin grafting usually necessary, full thickness burn
63. treatments for burns: debridement of burned skin, antibiotics, temporary covering, skin grafts
64. Burns are considered critical if:: Over 25% of the body has second-degree burns over 10% of the body has third-degree burns there are third-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet
65. rule of nines: Body is broken into 11 sections, with each section representing 9% of body surface (except genitals, which account for 1%) Used to estimate volume of fluid loss
66. First concern when dealing with 3rd degree burn: dehydration, not infection 68. risk factors for skin cancer: overexposure to UV radiation, frequent irritation of skin
67. Three major types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma
68. basal cell carcinoma: Most common and least severe type of skin cancer; often characterized by light or pearly nodules.
69. squamous cell carcinoma: Second most common type; can metastasize Involves keratinocytes of stratum spinosum Usually is a scaly reddened papule
70. melanoma: cancer of melanocytes; most dangerous type because it is highly metastatic and resistant to chemo
71. Types of skeletal cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
72. hyaline cartilage: Provides support, flexibility, and resilience Collagen fibers only; most abundant type Articular (joints), costal (ribs), respiratory (larynx), nasal cartilage (nose tip)

75. Elastic cartilage: Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains elastic fibers and the ability to recoil External ear and epiglottis
76. Fibrocartilage: Thick collagen fibers: has great tensile strength to withstand pressure Menisci of knee; intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis
77. characteristics of skeletal cartilage: highly resilient, molded cartilage tissue that consists primarily of water, contains no blood vessels or nerves
78. types of cartilage growth: appositional and interstitial 79 appositional growth: "growth from outside"- cartilage forming cells in surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external face of existing cartilage tissue
79. interstital growth: "Growth from inside". Lacunae-bound chondrocytes divide, secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within. New matrix made within cartilage
80. perichondruim: layer of dense connective tissue surrounding cartilage like a girdle, helps cartilage resist outward expansion, contains blood vessels to feed cartilage
81. chondrocytes: cartilage forming cells, cells encased in lacunae with jelly-like extracellular matrix
82. Functions of bone: body shape, support, protection, movement, storage, hematopoiesis
83. Support: for body and soft organs
84. protection: Protect brain, spinal cord, and vital organs
85. movement: levers for muscle action
86. Mineral and growth factor storage: Calcium and phosphorus, and growth factors reservoir
87. Hematopoiesis: blood cell formation; occurs in red bone marrow cavities of certain bones, gives rise to RBs, WBs, and platelets
88. Triglyceride (fat) storage: Fat, used for an energy source, is stored in bone cavities
89. hormone production: Osteocalcin secreted by bones helps to regulate insulin secretion, glucose levels, and metabolism
90. How many named bones are there?: 206
91. Types of skeletons: axial and appendicular
92. axial skeleton: long axis of body, skull, vertebral column, rib cage

94. appendicular skeleton: bones of upper and lower limbs, girdles attaching limbs to axial skeleton
95. Long bones: longer than they are wide, limb bones
96. short bones: cube-shaped (wrist and ankle), sesamoid bones, vary in size and number based on individuals
97. sesamoid bones: bones that form within some tendons in response to strain (patella)
98. Flat bones: thin, flat, slightly curved, sternum, scapulae, ribs, most skull bones
99. irregular bones: complicated shapes, vertebrae and coxal bones (hip bones)
    100. types of tissues found in bone: osseous (predominant), nervous tissue, cartilage, fibrous connective tissue, muscle cells, and epithelial cells in its blood vessels

APHY 101 Ivy Tech Lecture Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_681nr

.

101 levels of structure in bones: gross, microscopic, chemical

102. Compact bone: dense outer layer on every bone that appears smooth and solid, the osteon is the building block
103. spongy bone: made up of a honeycomb of trabeculae
104. trabeculae: Needle like threads of spongy bone that make the bone strong, No osteons are present, but trabeculae do contain irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi; Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients 105. Open spaces in the trabeculae are filled with ____.: red or yellow bone marrow
105. All long bones have ______: shaft (diaphysis), bone ends (epiphyses), and membranes
106. diaphysis: tubular shaft that forms long axis of bone; consists of compact bone surrounding central medullary cavity that is filled with yellow marrow in adults 108. epiphyses: ends of long bones that consist of compact bone outside and spongy bone inside, covered by articular cartilage at joints
107. epiphyseal line: remnant of childhood epiphyseal plate, between the diaphysis and epiphysis
108. epiphyseal plate: growth plate
109. periosteum: white, double-layered membrane that covers external surfaces except joints, contains nerve fibers and blood vessels, anchoring points for tendons and ligaments
110. fibrous layer of periosteum: outer layer consisting of dense irregular connective tissue consisting of Sharpey's fibers that secure to bone matrix
111. osteogenic layer of periosteum: inner layer abutting bone and contains primitive osteogenic stem cells that gives rise to most all bone cells
112. endosteum: delicate connective tissue membrane that covers internal bone surfaces, contains osteogenic cells that can differentiate into other bone cells
113. functions of endosteum: Covers the trabeculae of spongy bones and inner surfaces of central canals
114. the two types of membranes in bones are ___: periosteum and endosteum 117. medullary cavity: cavity within the shaft of the long bones filled with bone marrow (yellow in adults, red in children)
115. articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage that covers the surfaces of bones where they come together to form joints
116. diploe: thin plates of spongy bone found in flat bones

APHY 101 Ivy Tech Lecture Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_681nr

.

120. flat bone structure: no diaphyses, epiphyses; sandwich of spongy bone between compact bone
121. bone marrow in flat bones in found ____: scattered throughout spongey bone, there is no defined marrow cavity 122 Where is red marrow found?: within the trabecular cavities of spongy bone of long bones and in the diploe of flat bones
122. Where is red marrow found in adults?: heads of femur and humerus, most is in diploe and some irregular bones (hips)
123. red marrow location in newborns: all medulary cavities and spongy bone
124. yellow marrow location and function: medullary cavity, fat storage; can be converted to red marrow if a person becomes anemic
125. bone markings: Sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment on external surfaces; areas involved in joint formation or conduits for blood vessels and nerves 127. cells of bone tissue: osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, bone lining cells, osteoclasts
126. Osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells: mitotically active stem cells that differentiate into bone-forming osteoblasts when stimulated; located in periosteum and endosteum
127. osteoblasts: bone builders, secrete the bone matrix; actively mitotic
128. osteoid: unmineralized bone matrix composed of collagen (90% of bone protein) and calcium building proteins, secreted by osteoblasts
129. osteocytes: Mature bone cells in lacunae that no longer divide; maintain bone matrix and act as stress or strain sensors; respond to mechanical stimuli like increased force on bone or weightlessness, communicate info to osteoblasts and osteoclasts so remodeling can occur
130. bone-lining cells: flat cells found on bone surfaces believed to also help maintain matrix
131. osteoclasts: bone crushers; giant, multinucleate cells function in bone resorption (breakdown of bone)
132. from bone cell lineage: osteoprogenitor cells ’ osteoblast ’osteocyte
133. from white blood cell lineage: osteoclast
134. Osteon (Haversian system): structural unit of compact bone, act as weight bearing pillars
135. components of osteon: is the microscopic, functional, and repeating unit of compact bone. It consists of a single central canal, its contents, concentric lamellae (matrix), lacunae w/ osteocytes, and canaliculi.

APHY 101 Ivy Tech Lecture Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_681nr

.

138. lamellae: adjacent rings containing collagen fibers around the central canal, withstand stress and resist twisting
139. central canal (haversian canal): contains small blood vessels and nerve fibers that serve the osteon's cells
140. perforating canals (Volkmann's canals): lie at right angles to the long axis of the bone and connect the blood and nerve supply of the medullary cavity to the central canals 141 lacuna: small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes
141. Canaliculi: hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and to central canal Allow communication between all osteocytes of osteon and permit nutrients and wastes to be relayed from one cell to another
142. organic components of bone: Includes osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, bone-lining cells, osteoclasts, and osteoid, red marrow, osteoid
143. inorganic components of bone: hydroxyapatites (mineral salts), make up 65% of bone mass, CALCIUM PHOSPHATE is the main mineral salt, makes bones hard and resistant to compression
144. Ossification (osteogenesis): process of bone tissue formation
145. When does ossification occur?: Begins in 2nd month of development; postnatal bone growth until early adulthood, bone remodeling and repair are life long 147. Intramembranous ossification: bone develops from a fibrous membrane formed by mesenchymal cells
146. steps of intramembranous ossification: 1. Ossification centers are formed when mesenchymal cells cluster and become osteoblasts
147. Osteoid is secreted, then calcified
148. Woven bone is formed when osteoid is laid down around blood vessels, resulting in trabeculae, outer layer of woven bone forms periosteum 4. Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, and red marrow appears
149. endochondral ossification: process in which bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage
150. endochondral ossification steps: 1. Bone collar forms around diaphysis of cartilage model
151. Central cartilage in diaphysis calcifies, then develops cavities
152. Periosteal bud invades cavities, leading to formation of spongy bone, bud is made up of blood vessels, nerves, red marrow, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts
153. Diaphysis elongates, and medullary cavity forms

APHY 101 Ivy Tech Lecture Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_681nr

.

Secondary ossification centers appear in epiphyses

5. Epiphyses ossify Hyaline cartilage remains only in epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages 151. process of longitudinal growth (lengthening of bone): 1. Resting (quiescent) zone: area of cartilage on epiphyseal side of epiphyseal plate that is relatively inactive
6. Proliferation (growth) zone: Area of cartilage on diaphysis side of epiphyseal plate that is rapidly dividing New cells form move upward, pushing epiphysis away from diaphysis, causing lengthening

APHY 101 Ivy Tech Lecture Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_681nr

3. Hypertrophic zone: older chondrocytes closer to the diaphysis enlarge and their lacunae enlarge and erode forming interconnecting spaces
4. Calcification zone cartilage matrix ossifies, and chondrocytes die and deteriorate 4. Ossification zone: chondrocyte deterioration leaves long spicules of calcified cartilage at epiphysis-diaphysis junction; Spicules are then eroded by osteoclasts and are covered with new bone by osteoblasts and is ultimately replaced with spongy bone; Medullary cavity enlarges as spicules are eroded
5. appositional growth of bone (widening of bones): Osteoblasts in the periosteum secrete bone matrix on the external surface as osteoclasts on the endosteal surface of the diaphysis remove bone. Usually there is slightly more building than breaking down resulting in thickening of bones.
6. Types of fractures: simple, compound, comminuted, compression, depressed, impacted, spiral, greenstick, epiphyseal
7. simple fracture: break that does not penetrate the skin
8. complex fracture: break that penetrates the skin
9. comminuted fracture: bone fragments into three or more pieces, more common in people with more brittle bones
10. compression fracture: bone is crushed; common in porous bones like vertebra
11. spiral fracture: ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone, common sports fracture
12. epiphyseal fracture: epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate, tends to occur where cartilage cells are dying and calcification of the matrix is occurring
13. depressed fracture: broken bone portion is pressed inward, typical of skull fracture
14. greenstick fracture: bone breaks incompletely, common in children 162. Bone remodeling consists of both ___ and ___: bone deposit and bone resorption
15. remodeling units: packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts coordinate remodeling process
16. Hormones that regulate bone growth: Growth hormone (most important) stimulates epiphyseal plate activity, thyroid hormone modulates growth activity and ensures proper proportions, testosterone and estrogen promote puberty growth spurts
17. bone resorption: osteoclasts move along bone surface, creating grooves, they cling tightly to this area sealing it off and secrete acid to dissolve the minerals

APHY 101 Ivy Tech Lecture Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_681nr and lysosomal enzymes to digest the organic matrix, and then transport and release the waste into the blood.

166. bone deposition: osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix and it calcifies 167. Control groups controlling remodeling: hormonal controls and response to mechanical stress
167. remodeling hormone control: Negative feedback loop that controls blood Ca2+ levels; Calcium functions in many processes, such as nerve transmission, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, gland and nerve secretions, as well as cell division 99% of 1200-1400 gms of calcium are found in bone Intestinal absorption of Ca2+ requires vitamin D
168. Response to Mechanical Stress: Wolff's law: A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it
169. Steps for bone repair: hematoma forms, fibrocartilaginous callus forms, bony callus forms, bone remodeling occurs
170. hematoma forms: Torn blood vessels hemorrhage Clot (hematoma) forms Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed
171. fibrocartilaginous callus formation: Fibroblasts invade the fracture site and produce collagen fibers bridging the broken ends of the bone and chondroblasts secrete a cartilaginous matrix that later calcifies
172. fibrocartilaginous callus: spans the break and connects the broken bone ends
173. bony callus formation: osteoblasts begin to produce spongy bone trabeculae joining portions of the original bone fragments
174. bone remodeling occurs: Begins during body callus formation Continues for several months Excess material on diaphysis exterior and within medullary cavity removed Compact bone laid down to reconstruct shaft walls Final structure resembles original because responds to same mechanical stressors 176. osteomalacia: Bones are poorly mineralized; Osteoid is produced, but calcium salts not adequately deposited; Results in soft, weak bones; Pain upon bearing weight
175. Rickets (osteomalacia of children): Results in bowed legs and other bone deformities because bones ends are enlarged and abnormally long Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium
176. Osteoporosis: a group of diseases in which bone resorption exceeds deposit.

APHY 101 Ivy Tech Lecture Exam 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_681nr Matrix remains normal, but bone mass declines Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur most susceptible Vertebral and hip fractures common

179. Risk factors for osteoporosis: Most often aged, postmenopausal women Affects 30% of women aged 60-70 years and 70% by age 80 30% of Caucasian women will fracture bone because of osteoporosis Estrogen plays a role in bone density, so when levels drop at menopause, women run higher risk Men are less prone due to protection by the effects of testosterone
180. Treating Osteoporosis: Traditional treatments Calcium Vitamin D supplements Weight-bearing exercise Hormone replacement therapy Slows bone loss but does not reverse it Controversial because of increased risk of heart attack, stroke, and breast cancer
181. Preventing Osteoporosis: Plenty of calcium in diet in early adulthood Reduce carbonated beverage and alcohol consumption because it leaches minerals from bone so decreases bone density Plenty of weight-bearing exercise Increases bone mass above normal for buffer against age-related bone loss 182. Paget's disease: excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption causing bone to be made fast and poorly, called Pagetic bone, very high ratio of spongy to compact bone, usually occurs in spine, pelvis, femur, and skull, rarely occurs before age 40, cause unknown