AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households, Exams of Nursing

Download AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Murdock (1949) - Correct Answers ✅Argue that the family is universal in a nuclear family with a heterosexual couple and dependent children. There is a clear division of labour between husband and wife - the husband is the breadwinner who earns for the family and the wife is the housewife who does domestic labour and childcare. He argue that there are 4 essential functions that the family performs. Reproductive function - Correct Answers ✅Essential for the survival of society and without reproduction, it would cease to exist Sexual function - Correct Answers ✅This creates a powerful emotional bond between husband and wife which encourage fidelity and commitment to family life. It contributes to stability within the family as it sets out the moral rules. Economic function - Correct Answers ✅provide economic things which are vital for sustaining children lives for example, shelter, food and protection. Parents take responsibility for their welfare by bringing home an income, . AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Educational function - Correct Answers ✅this is done through primary socialization which is necessary to fit into society. This is by learning norms and values. Culture can be passed from generation to generation. Criticisms of Murdock - Correct Answers ✅- the definition of family is a 'product of time' and is ethnocentric (based on view on Western families). - Interprevists argue that he is value-laden where he fails to acknowledge that families are the 'product of culture'. - also very dated and fails to take account of moderns social processes. - largely correct that the family are the fundamental building blocks of society and most sees it as the most important aspect. Parsons (1955) 'Irreducible Functions' theory - Correct Answers ✅Argue that in the past, the family was a 'multi-functional' unit where it was the 'jack of all trades'. Now, there are only two 'irreducible functions that the family performs: the primary socialization of children and the stablisation of adult personalities. Parsons (1955) 'Functional-Fit' theory - Correct Answers ✅He also argue the type of society will depend on the structure of the family. He AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Inheritance of property - Correct Answers ✅Engels argue that in the primitive communison, there was no private property and there was no restrictions on sexual relationship which was called a promiscuous horde. As the capitalist system developed, father needed their legitimate heirs to pass down their wealth and their private property which have created the monogamous nuclear family. Ideological functions - Correct Answers ✅Argue that the family performs key ideological functions for capitalism. - Does this by socializing children telling them that hierarchy and inequality are inevitable - Zaretsky (1976) argue that the family performs ideological functions by providing an apparent from the harsh and exploitative world of capitalism. - Focused on how the family helped the capitalist economy where the proletariat having power and control. Unit of consumption - Correct Answers ✅Plays a major role into generating profit from bourgeoisie as it is an important market for goods sales. - Urges families to consume the latest products. - The media targets children AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 - Must be mocked and stigmatized by peers for not having the latest product. Benefits capitalism and profit not for society. Marxist Feminists - Correct Answers ✅- sees the family as a major obstacle for female emancipation. - argue that the family is patriarchal and the motion of equality is a myth. - argue that domestic labour serves the capitalist and exploitative society. - the obstacle to gender equality in employment as they are a reserve army of labour. - argue that husband pays for production to upkeep the future labour. - ANSLEY (1972) argue that emotional support acts as safety value. The frustration is absorbed by the wife increasing domestic violence. - COOPER (1972) argue the family is an ideological conditioning device. - FEELEY (1972) argue the structure of family relationship socializes children to be accepted in a class based society. Criticisms of Marxist Feminists - Correct Answers ✅- MORGAN argue that nuclear family are now becoming less common. - Ignores fact that women have made progress. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 - Exaggerate harm caused to women and neglects effects of non-family relationships. - Tends to portray as passive victims of capitalism and exploitation. Liberal Feminists - Correct Answers ✅- Focuses on patriarchy and sees men as the problem of gender inequality. - However, there have been improvements politically/legally and socially. *this includes voting rights, legislations on sex discrimination and equality at work. - They are not completely happy with the changes and believes that gentle persuasion convinces men. - Sees no need for political and social revoluntary chances. - Takes a march of progress view. Criticisms of Liberal Feminists - Correct Answers ✅- There is evidence outlining that changes does have effects. - Argue that there are different experiences showing that men are still not involved in childcare. - Still earns around 70% of men's earning and those working shorter/part-time are likely to be housewives. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 GIDDENS developed the idea of 'romantic love' and how in the past, people got married for economic circumstances in order to be stable. However, in the 18th century the idea of romantic love (which was started by the aristocracy) came. ○ Over time, plastic sexuality came and so women no longer preserve their virginity for the 'one' and so have sexual intercourse with more than one partner before marriage. Confluent love have also replaced romantic love. ○ Becks follows a similar argument to GIDDENS that changes are shaped by modernity but it can cause potential conflict. ○ This is called individualism where people had less choice but had offered security and stability. ○ STACEY believes that society have created a 'postmodern society' where individuals no longer think there is one dominant type of family. They argue that same sec families plays a big part in postmodern family development as it discourages tolerance. This makes children more hostile and open-minded. Criticism of the postmodern perspective - Correct Answers ✅GIDDENS: - Explains the increasing divorce rates and diversity - He might underestimate degree. - Women have made sense of personal choice. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 - The continuing popularity of marriage is seen as a quest. BECKS: - Love is craved and is hard to find. - Believes there is a contradiction leading to the normal chaos of love. - A little over-pessimistic. STACEY: - Acknowledges that it does not create instability. - It is questionable whether diversity is common. - It does identify important trends and patterns. Personal life Perspective - Correct Answers ✅Argue that we should focus on the meanings people have on the family and not assume that the family performs certain functions. The personal life perspective sociologists argue that the other perspectives have two weaknesses: ○ They are structural approaches - they take a 'top down' approach towards the family ○ Ignores family diversity - they don't see the increased family diversity The sociology of personal life is a new perspective influenced on interactionist to understand families. The emphasise the meaning of the individual family members. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ They take a 'bottom down' approach. Donor conceived children: ○ Nordqvist and Smart found issues on blood and genes that some children are primary socialised by their non-genetic parents. ○ The differences in appearances can lead to the donor's identity and so difficult feelings can flare on the non-genetic parents to find the true identity. There are concerns on lesbian couples on equality. Beyond ties of blood and marriage - they take a wider view on relationships as it focuses on the personal meanings such as: ○ Deceased family relationship ○ Pet relationships ○ Same sex chosen families ○ Fictive kin Friends relationships Criticisms of the personal life perspective - Correct Answers ✅- Can be accused for taking a broad view. - It helps us to understand the definition that people have on 'family'. - Recognises that relationships is not always positive. - Sees intimate relationships as performing functions AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 § This is demonstrated in material resources of families and is partly the result of income difference. § There is also a difference in child-rearing. ○ Life stage diversity: § Exists between family members in different stages of their lives and so things like marriage, divorce and cohabitation changes the family structure. ○ Generational diversity: § Older and younger generations would have different opinions and experiences of life. § This reflects the historical period in which they lived in. Eversley and Bonnerjea (1982) - Correct Answers ✅Agrees with the Rapoports but they add another type which is the regional diversity where the family structure depends on the area of where you lived: ○ Sun Belt: This is in the South where they are most likely to have nuclear families. ○ Geriatric Ward: This is the coastal areas and this is where the older couples will be in. ○ Inner City Area: These are the city area where they have lone parent households. ○ Truly Rural Area: This is in the county where extended families are. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ Newly Declining Industrial Area: this is in the Midlands where there are various types of families. Reasons for family diversity - Correct Answers ✅1. Effects of changes of marriage, cohabitation and divorce: ○ Have been a decline in marriage in last 30 years and a higher proportion is remarriages. ○ Adds to increased variety of family types and cohabitation is increasing and divorce is increasing as well. ○ This breaks into greater family diversity 2. Effects of demographic changes: ○ As more old people are living longer, it has affected household composition which has put off marriage and childbirth until later on. ○ Birth rates and death rates have declined which breaks to greater family diversity. 3. Effects on changing social attitudes: ○ Attitudes towards cohabitation have changed as they do not see it as 'a sin' anymore. ○ Attitudes to 'illegitimate' children have changed and are more tolerant to changes and family diversity 4. Changes in the position of women in society: AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ Gained rights and have begun to achieve equality in education and work and so women is feeling more independent and able to support themselves. ○ Have an effect on the divorce rate so creates greater family diversity. 5. Secularisation: ○ Religious beliefs and vows have a less direct influence over large sections of population. ○ Increases the number of civil marriages meant that marriage is not seen as a religious institution and the possibility of a divorce is greater. ○ This creates a greater family diversity. 6. Welfare support from the state: ○ Women feel more able to support self independently as lone mother/divorcee. ○ The state help provide child benefits, income support etc. 7. Increase in the variety of cultures and ethnicities: ○ Increase in ethnic groups led to increase in alternative family forms and living arrangement. 8. Changing patterns of social life/more choice available: ○ Less pressure to conform and more opportunities available means that marriage and childbirth can AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 • New Right view that marriage equals commitment while cohabitation is not has been challenged. • Smart (2011) points out that poverty cause the breakdown of relationships. The neo-conventional family - Correct Answers ✅- Robert Chester (1985) argue that there has been 'some' increased family diversity but Unlike the New Right, he doesn't regard this as significant in a negative light. • He argues that the most important change is the move from the 'conventional family' to the 'neo-conventional family'. • He defines the neo-conventional family as a dual-earner family where both spouses go to work and this is similar to Young and Wilmott's idea on the symmetrical family. • He does not have any other evidence of major changes and argue that most people don't always choose alternative families which means that the nuclear family is what they aspire for. • He also argues that not being in a life-cycle means that they are in a nuclear family and shows that statistics are misleading as they are a snapshot of a single moment. • He identifies a number of patterns: ○ Most people live in nuclear families and they marry and have children. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ Most marriages last until death and thinks that the increase in cohabitation is temporary where couple will eventually marry. ○ Parents who have children born outside marriage is jointly registered. • The extent and importance of family life and diversity has been exaggerated and the only difference that Chester sees is the move from conventional to neo-conventional. Stacey (1998) - Correct Answers ✅• Argue that greater freedom and choice have benefitted women and that it has enabled them to free self from patriarchal oppression and that family structures have been shaped to fit needs. • Used life history interviews to conduct series of case studies to postmodern families and found that women have been the main agents of changes in family. • Have rejected the traditional housewife-mother role and have created new types of families which better suited their needs. • One of them is called the divorce-extended family where family members are connected by a divorce. • Illustrates the idea that postmodern families are diverse and the shapes depends on their needs and choices. Morgan (1996, 2011) argue that it is pointless to make generalisation on family. He focuses on how people creates own diverse family lives and practices. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 The individualisation thesis - Correct Answers ✅• Giddens and Beck have been influenced by ideas on today's society and explores the effects of increased choice on families and relationships which is called the individualisation thesis. • Argue that traditional social structure have lost influenced over people and that in the past, people's lives were fixed but now it is flexible. • People have become more free/disembedded from traditional norms, roles and structures which have left more freedom. Giddens (1992) - Correct Answers ✅• Argue that family has transformed by greater freedom and choice and that is a more equal relationship between couples. • In the past, the family was held by external forces but nowadays, they are more free to define their relationships rather than act out their roles. • It has occurred because of: ○ Contraception - allows sex and intimacy rather than reproduction and is the main reason for relationships. ○ Women's independence - results from feminism because of greater opportunities of education and work. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 The connectedness thesis - Correct Answers ✅• Smart (2007) and May (2013) takes the personal life perspective (PLP) who agrees there are more diversity but disagrees with the individualisation thesis. • They propose an alternative claim called the connectedness thesis where individuals are fundamentally social beings which makes choices that are made 'within a web of connections. • Individuals live within networks of existing relationships and interwoven personal histories which has strongly influenced range of options and choices. • Finch and Mason (1993) found that individuals can negotiate their relationship to an extent. - They think that Becks and Giddens have exaggerated the individualisation thesis. Weeks (2000) - Correct Answers ✅• Identifies a long term shift in attitudes and sexual morality has become matter of personal choice. There is a growing acceptance of sexual and family diversity and have become more favourable towards cohabitation and homosexuality. • He observes that despite these changes, family life have still continued to be traditional but he argue than sexual and family diversity are undeniable and is widely accepted. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Modified extended family / beanpole family - Correct Answers ✅• Wilmott (1988) claims that the modified extended family is becoming dominant and it consists of 2 or more relatives who lives apart but are nearby. • Contacts are fairly frequent but less frequent than the traditional extended families. • This is provided by Brannen (2003) who argues that there are strong intergenerational links. This is partly because there are people living loner and there are more generations. • Also found that grandparents are providing informal childcare and give financial help to children and grandchildren. • Also found that intragenerational links are now weaker and therefore characterises family structure as long and thin and compares it to a 'beanpole'. • Despite this rise, they are still feeling a sense of obligations to help extended kins and Finch and Mason (1993) found that 90% have given or received financial helps and 1/2 have cared for elderly relatives. • Cheal (2002) note that when personal care is needed, the daughter or daughter-in-law is needed. • Mason (2011) found that principle of reciprocity/balance is important and evidence suggest that extended families plays an important roe where it provides both practical and emotional support. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Ethnic differences in family patterns - Correct Answers ✅Black Caribbean /African families: • They have a high proportion of lone/single parent households. Over 1/2 were headed by a lone parent with a 'black' background. • Matriarchal black lone parent families are seen as evidence of family disorganisation but however: - Mirza (1997) argue that high rates are not evidence of family disorganization but instead, it reflects high values in women's independence ○ Reynolds (2010) argue that the statistics are misleading and that lone parent households are stable and supportive. Asian Families: • Bhatti (1999) found in her research that there was a continuing emphasis on loyalty to keep traditional norms towards marriage. • They like to maintain links and contact with distinct relatives in India and Pakistan. • She also found that izzat/family honour is taken very seriously especially on daughters. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ Fact that divorce courts would give custody to the mother of the children and men would be less willing to give up work for childcare. • Renvoize (1985) found professional women were able to support children without the father's involvement. • Cashmore (1985) found working-class women choose to be on welfare benefits because they have experienced abuse • Feminist ideas and greater opportunities have also encouraged increase of single mothers. Welfare state and poverty of lone parent households - Correct Answers ✅• Murray (1984) sees the growth of lone parent households from the over-generous welfare state who provides benefits. • This has created a 'perverse incentive' where it is rewarding irresponsible behaviour and have created a 'dependency culture' where people assume that the state will support them. • The solution is to abolish the welfare benefits which reduces the dependency culture. • Critics argue that the welfare state are far from generous and lone parent families are in high risk of being in poverty and reasons include: ○ Lack of affordable childcare ○ Inadequate welfare benefits ○ Matriarchal single parent households AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 - Failure of fathers paying maintenance. Stepfamilies - Correct Answers ✅• Accounts to 10% of all households and 85% of all stepfamilies have at least one child from the women's previous relationships, 4% are from both partner's previous relationships. • Ferri and Smith (1998) found in stepfamilies are very similar to nuclear families in major respects. • Allan and Crow (2007) found that stepfamilies may face particular problems on loyalties and issues. • McCarthy et al (2003) conclude there are diversity among stepfamilies. Reasons for these changes: • Formed when lone parent form new relationships so divorce and separation increases stepfamilies. • More children are from the women's previous relationship as children are more likely to stay with the mother. • Are at greater risk of poverty as there are more children and the stepfather have to provide for all of them. - Tension faced may be a result of lack of clear social norms of how individuals should behave. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Same sex families facts - Correct Answers ✅• Stonewall (2012) estimates that 5%-7% of the adult population have same-se relationships • Impossible to judge whether this represent an increase as in the past, stigma and illegality means they are hidden. • Evidence of increased social acceptance of same-sex couples and male homosexual acts were decriminalised in 1967. • The age of consent have been equalised with heterosexuals and opinion polls shows tolerance of homosexuality. • Social policy have treated all couples equally and since 2002, cohabiting couples have the same rights as married couples. • In 2004, THE CIVIL PARTNERSHIP ACT gave same-sex couples same legal rights to heterosexual couples and in 2014, they were allowed to get married. Reason for changes in lone parent households - Correct Answers ✅• Weeks (1999) argues increased social acceptance explains a trend towards same-sex cohabitation and a stable relationship. • Sees gays as creating the ideology of 'friendship as kinship' where friendship becomes type of kinship network. • Weston (1992) describes same-sex families as 'quasi-marriage'. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Domestic labour - Correct Answers ✅the sociological name for housework and childcare. Patriarchy - Correct Answers ✅It refers to male domination over women in society Instrumental role - Correct Answers ✅When husbands are geared towards achieving success at work to provide for the family. Expressive role - Correct Answers ✅When wives are geared towards teaching children PRIMARY SOCIALISATION and meeting the family's emotional needs Parsons (1955) - Correct Answers ✅Argues that the division of labour between men and women are biologically constructed. Men are naturally suited to be the breadwinners while the women is naturally suited to be the housewife of the family. This is shown to be beneficial for the family and wider society. Joint conjugal roles - Correct Answers ✅When men and women have joint/shared roles in the family and so they spend their leisure time together. This is increasing over the last 100 years because of women's right have been identified. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Segregated conjugal roles - Correct Answers ✅When men and women have separate roles and their leisure activities are separated. This has become less common because more women are now working and more men are now doing more domestic labour. The symmetrical family - Young and Wilmott (1973) - Correct Answers ✅- takes the march of progress view seeing the family as improving, equal and democratic. • There has been a long term trend away from segregated conjugal role and towards joint conjugal roles. • They call this the 'symmetrical family' where roles between couples are now similar: ○ Women now have paid employment. ○ Men now help with domestic labour in the house. ○ They now spend their leisure time together rather than separately. • They found that this is more common in younger couples and those who are geographical and social mobile. • They see the rise of symmetrical family as a result of major social changes: ○ Changes in women's positions ○ Geographical mobile workforce AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ New technology ○ Higher standards of living. Feminists on housework - Correct Answers ✅• They reject the march of progress view and argue that little has changed. • Men and women remain unequal within the family and sees inequality as stemming that the family and the society is patriarchal. • Oakley (1974) sees the symmetrical family claim is exaggerated and that their evidence is hardly convincing. • In her research, she found that there are some evidence of house- husbands but no evidence towards the trend of symmetrical families. • This shows that husbands are more likely to only do childcare. • Boulton (1983) found <20% of husbands had a major role in childcare. • Warde and Hetherington (1993) found that sex-typing of domestic labour is still strong and found that men would carry out domestic labour when women is not around. Dunne (1999) - Correct Answers ✅• Conducted a study of the division of labour in lesbian households and concluded that one partner didn't usually take primary responsibility and the birth mother was not the main carer. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 • The fact that men have better career opportunities may not be because of individual couples. • They might not have decision as they might be the high earner. • Davis (1991) argue that power can be exercised in a subtle way and will choose to accept the situation. Cultural/ideological explanation of gender inequality - Correct Answers ✅§ Where the division of labour is determined by patriarchal norms and values which shapes gender roles. § Gershuny (1994) found couples whose parents have an equal relationship are more likely to be equal which suggests parental role models and argues that social values are gradually adapting. § Kan (2001) found younger men do more domestic work and claims to do more housework than their fathers and women do less than their mothers which explains a generational shift of behaviour. § The British Social Attitude survey (2013) found <10% of under-35 agrees to the traditional division of labour which indicate a long term change in norms, values and attitudes. § Dunne (1999) found lesbian couples had more symmetrical family because of the absence of the heterosexual couple. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Material/economic explanation of gender inequality - Correct Answers ✅§ The fact that women earn less than men mean it is economically right for women to do housework and childcare. § Arber and Ginn (1995) found better-paid middle class women were able to buy commercially produced products/services. § Ramos (2003) found that women is the full-time breadwinner and the man is unemployed and does as much domestic labour. Criticisms of gender division of labour explanation - Correct Answers ✅• Some evidence that women in paid work leads to more equality in the division of labour. • Feminists argue that women continue to shoulder dual/triple shift burden and argue that the root of the problem is patriarchy which shapes society's expectations on domestic roles than couples perform. Domestic violence - Correct Answers ✅Any incident or pattern of incident of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16+ who are or have been intimate partners/family members regardless of gender or sexuality. Challenges of domestic violence - Correct Answers ✅- It is too widespread: AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 § The Women's Federation Aid (2014) found between sixth and a quarter of all record violent crime are accounted. § The Crime Survey (2013) found 2,000,000 have reported of being victims of domestic violence. ○ Does not occur randomly: § Follows particular social patterns and have causes. § They are mainly female victims in which Coleman et al (2007) calls 'intimate violence'. Evidence of domestic violence - Correct Answers ✅• Dobash and Dobash found violent incidents can be stimulated of what husbands saw as a challenge to the authority. They argues that marriage legitimate violence against women by having power and authority on husbands • The Crime Survey found a narrow gender gap as 7.3% (1,000,000) of women and 5% (800,000) of men have reported being victims. ○ Walby and Allen (2004) found women are more likely to be victims of multiple incidents of abuse. ○ Ansara and Hindin (2011) found women suffered severe violence with serious psychological effects. ○ Dar (2013) found it's difficult to count domestic violence as it is continuous. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Total fertility rate - Correct Answers ✅The average age/number of children women will have during their fertile years. The TFR have risen but is still quite low from 1.63 to 1.84 children per women. Reason for declining birth rate 1: Changes in women's position - Correct Answers ✅1. Changes in women's position: ○ Major changes in women include: § Legal equality § Increased educational opportunities § Women in paid employment § Changes in attitudes § Easier access to divorce § Access to abortion and reliable contraception ○ Harper (2012) argue that women's education is the most important reason to the changes in women's position. ○ It has led to changes in mindsets which results in fewer children and encouraged them to see other possibilities. This results in small families becoming the norm. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Reasons for declining birth rates 2: Decline in the IMR - Correct Answers ✅○ Infant mortality rate (IMR) - the measure of the number of infant deaths before 1st birthday per 1000 in the population per year. ○ Harper argue that the fall in the IMR decreases the birth rate and this is because in the past, parents could replace if an infant dies but now more infant survive for many reasons: § Improved housing and sanitation § Better nutrition § Better knowledge of hygiene § Fall in the number of working married women - Improved mother and children services. Reasons for declining birth rates 3: Economic liability - Correct Answers ✅○ Until the late 19th century, children were economic assets where they provided for the family. They are now economic liability because of laws and changing norms. ○ They now feel unwilling to have larger family as parents would need to provide for their children and so need smaller families. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Reasons for declining birth rates 4: Child centredness - Correct Answers ✅○ As child centredness is increasing, it means that childhood is socially accepted which encourages a shift from 'quantity' and 'quality'. ○ They now have fewer children and so lavish attention on them. Death rates - Correct Answers ✅The number of deaths per 1000 in the population per year. The death rate is declining and it had risen during the Economic Depression and WWII. Reasons for the declining death rates 1: Improved nutrition - Correct Answers ✅§ McKeown (1972) argue that improved nutrition have halved the death rates as there is a resistance of infection and increase of survival. § McKeown does not explain why women live longer than men who receives a smaller share of food. § Fails to explain that infectious diseases caused death increased when there were improved nutrition. Reasons for declining death rates 2: Medical improvements - Correct Answers ✅§ Medical attention did not play a major role in the decline of death rate <1950s. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ Should beware of over-generalising since many stay in good health. ○ In addition, it also means a change in policies and provision on services like housing and transport. Effects of an ageing population 2: One-person pensioner households - Correct Answers ✅○ This number has increased and now accounts for 12.5% or 1/8 of the population. ○ Because women live longer than men, they are mainly female and this is called the 'feminisation of later life'. Effects of an ageing population 3: The dependency ratio - Correct Answers ✅○ The non-working old are an economically dependent group who needs to be provided for by the working population. - As the number of retired people increase, the dependency ratio also increases and burden of the working population. ○ Would be wrong to assume that the old is 'economically dependent' as the age of drawing pensions are rising. ○ While an increase in number of old people increases dependency ratio, this is an offset by declining number of dependent children. Modernity on old age - Correct Answers ✅§ Sociologists argue that ageism is a result of 'structured dependency' and that the old was AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 excluded from paid work which leaves them economically dependent on the state. § Identity and status is one of the most important features of modern society and so the old are left with a dependent status and a stigmatized identity. § Phillipson (1982) argue that the old are no longer productive which means that the capitalist state does not want them. As a result, the state provides them inadequate support. § Age is important in role allocation which means that it creates fixed life stages and age-related identities. The old are excluded from the labour force. Postmodernity on old age - Correct Answers ✅ Immigration - Correct Answers ✅This refers to the movement into a country Facts on immigration - Correct Answers ✅• Until the 2nd World War, the largest group were Irish and it was for economic reasons. • Around the 1950s, more non-white immigrants were entering the country and now the majority of them are non-white. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 • One reason for this is a more ethnically diverse society where it accounts for 14% of the population and there have been more of a diverse family pattern. Net migration - Correct Answers ✅The difference between numbers of immigrants and the numbers of emigrants. Emigration - Correct Answers ✅This refers to the movement out of a country Facts on emigration - Correct Answers ✅• In early 16th century to 1980s, UK was almost always a net explorers of people. • The main reasons for this have been economic reasons for 2 factors: ○ Push factor - recessions and unemployment ○ Pull factors - high wages and better opportunities. Impact on migration - Correct Answers ✅• Population size: ○ Net migration is high ○ A natural increase where there are more births than deaths as non- UK mothers have a higher fertility rate. • Age structure: AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ Have joined the labour force and less willing/able to perform domestic labour. ○ Remain unwilling to perform domestic labour. ○ Failure of the state to provide adequate childcare. • They have been partly filled by women and Shutes (2011) found that 40% of adult nurses are female migrants. • Also a global transfer of women's emotional labour for example, migrant nannies. They may also enter western countries as mail order brides which reflects gendered and racialised stereotypes. Migrant identities - Correct Answers ✅• Migrants can develop different identities called hybrid identities which are made up of two or more different sources of identities. • Eades (1994) found that Bangladeshi Muslims develops hierarchical identities which challenges identity. Transnational identities - Correct Answers ✅- Eriksen (2007) argue that globalisation created a more diverse migration pattern and as a result, migrants are less likely to see self as belonging completely to one culture/country. • Modern technology makes it possible to sustain global ties. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 • This means migrants have more links to other migrants around the world Politicisation of migration - Correct Answers ✅• Increased global flows of migrant have made it such an important political issue which seeks to control immigration. • Immigration policies have become linked to national security and anti-terrorism policies: ○ Assimilationism - the first state policy which aims to encourage immigrants to adopt their own customs, languages and values of the host culture. This faces problem to transnational migrants with hybrid identities. ○ Multiculturalism - accepts migrants may wish to retain cultural identity but this is limited and he distinguishes between: § Shallow diversity: regarding chicken tikka as UK's national dish is acceptable. § Deep diversity: arranged marriage and veiling is not acceptable. • Critics argue that these policies celebrates shallow diversity which failing to address deeper problems facing children from migrant backgrounds. • Castles (2000) argue that these policies are counter-productive as they mark out minority groups. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 • This leads to minorities responding by emphasising difference which increases hosts' suspicion of them and may promote anti-terrorism policies. This breeds further marginalisation. The modern western notion of childhood - Correct Answers ✅• Generally accepted that children are regarded as physically and psychologically immature where they lack skills, knowledge and experiences. • Pilcher (1995) argue that the most important feature is that they are seen as a clear, distinct status from adulthood. This is emphasised from laws. • There is an idea where it is the 'golden age' of happiness and innocence. As a result, children are living in a sphere of family and education where parents protects them from the adult world. • This is different in some cultures which means their idea of childhood is different. Cultural difference in childhood - Correct Answers ✅• Benedict (1934) argue that children in simple, non-industrial societies: ○ Take responsibilities at a very young age. ○ Less value is placed on them. ○ Their sexual behaviour is viewed differently. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ Concern have been expressed on their health and behaviour for example: self harm, obesity, drugs/alcohol abuse, violence, early sexual experiences and teenage pregnancies. The conflict view - Correct Answers ✅• They goes against the march of progress view who argues that there is inequality amongst children and between adults and children. • They see that the march of progress sociologists are seeing a false, idealised image of childhood. • Firestone (1979) and Holt (1974) argue that care and protection that adults give to children is just a form of inequality and a way of making them more dependent and powerless. Control over their space: ○ Children's movement is highly regulated as there is an increasingly close surveillance over children in public spaces and fear of road safety and 'stranger danger'. ○ This contrasts with independence of children in developing countries. Control over their bodies: ○ Adult have a lot of control over what their child does and it's taken for granted. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ At the same time, they restrict the way where children touch their own bodies which contrasts with the sexual freedom that developing countries children have. Control over their resources: ○ Children only have limited resources so they remain dependent economically § Labour laws & compulsory schooling excludes them from work. § Child benefits goes to the parent. § Pocket money is only given for 'good behaviour' and there are restrictions on spending. ○ Contrasts with the economic role of children in developing societies. Age patriarchy: ○ Gittins (1998) develops the term of age patriarchy which describes the inequalities between adults and children. ○ Argues there is adult domination and children dependency in the form of violence and findings have supported this that patriarchy opposes women as well as children. The new sociology of childhood - Correct Answers ✅· Childhood is shaped by social processes such as industrialisation, laws and AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 government policies which have affected institutions such as the family and the education system. · This helps sociologists understand the changes of childhood where they are seen as passive objects. · Mayall (2004) calls this the adultist viewpoint where they see children as a mere socialisation project to mould to shape. · A different viewpoint does not see children as 'adults in the making' but sees them as active agents where they can create their own childhoods The child's point of view - Correct Answers ✅• Smart (2011) argue that this approach must include views of experiences of childhood from the children themselves as they are living in current society. • Mason and Tipper (2008) sees that children can define their own identities and can tell who they consider 'family'. Smart et al (2001) found in his study of divorce that children were actively involved to make situations better. • They use research methods such as informal, unstructured interview which allows children to express their own opinions and experiences and it also enables sociologists to see multiple childhoods • It allows sociologists to draw attention to this approach where children lack power to adults by which the child liberationists would campaign for. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 · There is some evidence that parents see relationships with children more important than with partners but however, the evidence comes from small, unrepresentative data. · Guilty of over-generalising and despite greater family diversity and childhood patterns, he makes sweeping statements that all children are in the same position. Social policy - Correct Answers ✅The plan/action of state agencies and are usually based on laws introduced by the government which provides the framework within these agencies. - Some is aimed directly at families and some do not. The comparative view of family policies - Correct Answers ✅• Can sometimes have deep effects on families and members and cross- cultural from different societies/historical periods shows most extreme way. ○ China's one child policy: § The government's population control aims to control the amount of infants born and discourages parents for having a 2nd child. ○ Communist Romania: AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 § In the 1980s, they introduced policies which drove up the birth rate and they did this by restricting contraception & abortion, set up infertility centres and made divorce more difficult to obtain. ○ Nazi family policy: § The state pursued a 2 fold policy where on one hand, it encouraged a healthy and 'radically pure' to breed but wants women to stay at home and sterilised disabled people. ○ Democratic societies: § Some people argue that in democratic societies, the family is a private sphere of life but however, sociologists argue that the state plays a major role in shaping lives. Functionalism of social policy - Correct Answers ✅• They see policies as helping families perform their functions effectively to make family life better. • Fletcher (1966) argue introduction of health, education and housing policies led to the development of the welfare state which supports the family. • They see society as built on harmony and consensus from major conflict. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 Criticisms: ○ Feminists argue it's an attempt to justify return to traditional family that subordinated women. ○ Assumes traditional family is natural rather than socially constructed and cutting benefits simply drives people into greater poverty. ○ Assumes that all members benefit from social policies and also assumes that there is a 'march of progress' with social policies. New Right on social policy - Correct Answers ✅• Had considerable influence of government thinking on social policy and in their view, it should avoid anything that undermines the conventional family. • They say that changes have led to greater family diversity which are threatening the traditional nuclear family and are creating social problems. • Almond (2006) argue that: ○ Divorce laws undermines the ideology of lifetime commitment ○ Introduction of civil partnership shows heterosexual couples are superior. ○ Tax laws means that they cannot transfer to non-working partners tax allowance. ○ Points that cohabitants have the same rights as married couples. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 • The Coalition government (2010-2015): ○ Hayton (2010) calls: § Modernisers recognises that families are now more diverse. § Traditionalists favours NR and rejects diversity. ○ Means that the Conservative Party found difficult to maintain a consistent policy line. ○ Critics argue that their financial austerity policies reflects NR desire but failed to introduce policies with promotes NR idea of conventional family. Feminism on social policy - Correct Answers ✅• They take a conflict view arguing that society is patriarchal which benefits men. They argue that all social institution helps to maintain women's subordinate position and unequal gender division of labour. • Policies are based on assumption on what a 'family' is and Land (1978) argue that the ideal family is the convention patriarchal heterosexual nuclear family with a clear division of labour between couples. • This affects the kind of policies governing family life is often to reinforce the nuclear family which creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. • They identify numerous example where policies supports the patriarchal nuclear family: AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 ○ Tax and benefit policies: § Assumes that there is only one breadwinner which is the husband. § This makes it more difficult/impossible for women to claim social security benefits from the government. § This increases the economic dependence on husbands. ○ Childcare: § Childcare is not provided enough for parents likewise, school timetables makes it difficult for women to work full-time and so they are restricted from work which increases dependence. ○ Care for sick and elderly: § Often assumes that the provide for care and it is women who are more likely to do this care. § This prevents them working full time and increases economic dependence on their husbands. • Maternity leave entitlements are more generous towards women than men and so encourages assumption that the women should look after infants which increases their economic dependence. AQA A Level Sociology - Families and Households - Full cards Exam Question & Answers 2024 • Criticisms: not all policies are directed at supporting the patriarchal nuclear family for example, equal pay and sex discrimination laws. Marxism on social policy - Correct Answers ✅• Do not see them as benefitting members of society and sees it as serving capitalism. • Do not accept there was a 'march of progress' towards better welfare policies and argue that improvements has been women through class struggles. DONZELOT (1977): • Has a conflict view of society and sees it as a form of state power and control. • Uses Foucault's (1976) idea of surveillance as not held by government/state but diffused through society and found within all relationship. • Sees professional as exercising power by using expert knowledge. Donzelot applies this and calls this the policing of families. • Condry (2007) says that the state seeks to control and regulate family life by parenting orders for young offenders. • Rejects the functionalist march of progress view that members have a better, freer/more humane society and shows importance of professional knowledge.