Atmospheric Pollution and Environmental Impact, Exams of Nursing

Download Atmospheric Pollution and Environmental Impact and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! ALL OF ESS FOR IB EXAM Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - correct answer ✔✔Amount of oxygen required by aquatic bacteria to decompose given load of organic waste; a measure of water pollution. Biotic index - correct answer ✔✔A measure of water quality that uses the diversity and abundance of organisms living within it. Deep water currents - correct answer ✔✔Deep ocean currents are driven by density and temperature gradients. Thermohaline circulation is also known as the ocean's conveyor belt (which refers to deep ocean density-driven ocean basin currents). Eutrophication - correct answer ✔✔excessive richness of nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen. Fishery - correct answer ✔✔An area with a large population of valuable ocean organisms; a commercially harvestable population of fish within a particular ecological region Indicator species - correct answer ✔✔Species that serve as early warnings that a community or ecosystem is being degraded. Water budget - correct answer ✔✔Describes the income and the spending of water in a region; A summation of inputs, outputs, and net changes to a water system, such as a groundwater basin, or an entire state, over a fixed period Water pollution - correct answer ✔✔Any physical or chemical change in surface water or groundwater that can harm living organisms or make water unfit for certain uses. surface water - correct answer ✔✔Water above the surface of the land, including lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, floodwater, and runoff. ground water - correct answer ✔✔underground water that is held in the soil and in pervious rocks hydrology - correct answer ✔✔the study of water and its effects on and in the earth and in the atmosphere salination - correct answer ✔✔contamination of soil by salt water; process in which plants are rendered incapable of growth by salts deposited into topsoil through continual irrigation phosphates - correct answer ✔✔Phosphorous-based nutrients commonly found in fertilizers and pesticides; can cause serious water quality issues when running into a body of water. hydroelectric - correct answer ✔✔Electricity generated by flowing water desalination - correct answer ✔✔The process of obtaining fresh water from salt water by removing the salt. upwelling - correct answer ✔✔The movement of cold water upward from the deep ocean that is caused by wind. cloud seeding - correct answer ✔✔the scattering of chemicals into clouds to bring about rain watershed - correct answer ✔✔an area or ridge of land that separates waters flowing to different rivers, basins, or seas; An area of land that drains into a river or lake. el nino - correct answer ✔✔an irregularly occurring and complex series of climatic changes affecting the equatorial Pacific region and beyond every few years, characterized by the appearance of unusually warm, nutrient-poor water off northern Peru and Ecuador, typically in late December. dead zone - correct answer ✔✔a location within a body of water that does not have enough dissolved oxygen to sustain life. runoff - correct answer ✔✔water that flows over the ground surface rather than soaking into the ground Energy security - correct answer ✔✔The ability to secure affordable, reliable and sufficient energy for the needs of an economy Ukraine-Russia gas disputes - correct answer ✔✔After the USSR dissolved, Russia exported gas to Ukraine below market price but stopped doing so in 2006 as Ukraine didn't pay off debts and used gas intended for the rest of Europe Wind turbines in Denmark - correct answer ✔✔30% requirements of energy fulfilled with wind, more than any other nation Ban nuclear power plants, government action to reduce carbon emissions Wind speeds not always high but arrangements with neighbouring nations Weather - correct answer ✔✔Atmospheric conditions over short time periods; daily result of temperature, pressure and precipitation Climate - correct answer ✔✔Atmospheric behaviour over long periods of time; average trends Effects on climate and weather - correct answer ✔✔Atmospheric/ocean circulatory systems, clouds (trapping heat), forest fires (CO2 emissions), volcanic eruptions, human activities Climate change - correct answer ✔✔Long-term change in climate which has happened over time but is increased with human influence Main GHG - correct answer ✔✔Water vapour, CO2, methane Considerations in climate change statistics - correct answer ✔✔Role of ozone, CFCs, water vapour and whether it talks of total GHG effects or enhanced effect GWP - correct answer ✔✔Global warming potential, relative measure of how much a heat mass of a GHG traps over a number of years compared to CO2 Water vapour in trapping heat - correct answer ✔✔Largest effect but not always listed; varies in concentration and changes state constantly Impact of climate change on oceans/sea levels - correct answer ✔✔- Sea levels rice with melted ice and heated water - Low lying states are flooded - Heated oceans absorb less CO2, which does make them less acidic but does affect ecosystems Impact of climate change on polar ice caps - correct answer ✔✔- Melt with temperatures - Sea levels rise with land (not sea) ice - Change ocean currents, impacting world climates - Open trade routes - Release methane/disease Impact of climate change on glaciers - correct answer ✔✔- Decrease/melt - Flooding and landslides - Freshwater to communities, but overheating causes drougt Impact of climate change on weather patterns - correct answer ✔✔- More heat = more energy, weather becomes violent - More rain means soil erosion - Droughts boost irrigation meaning salinisation - Hurricanes and storms threaten population Impact of climate change on food production - correct answer ✔✔- Increase photosynthesis/respiration, so no productivity increase - Shift/expand crop growing seasons - Winners and losers depending on fertility of soil in new growing areas - Crop pests spread to higher latitudes - Ocean temperature kills plankton - Heatwaves kill livestock Impact of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystems - correct answer ✔✔- Not all species can adapt/migrate with changing climate so go extinct - Plants can't move - Plants break dormancy earlier - Melting glaciers reduce water salinity, changing currents and habitats - Increased water temperature kills sensitive species - Drought causes forest fires, add carbon and wipe out habitats - Pests survive winters Impact of climate change on water supplies - correct answer ✔✔- Increased evaporation dries up water meaning less supply Impact of climate change on human health - correct answer ✔✔- Heatwaves - Insect/fungal disease - Algal blooms - Dust - Lest death from cold/icy roads - Reduce heating bills Impact of climate change on human migration - correct answer ✔✔- More environmental refugees - Affect state, service, economic and security policies Impact of climate change on national economies - correct answer ✔✔- Some suffer with less water Adaptation - human lifestyle - correct answer ✔✔- Migrate to other areas - Vaccinate against waterborne disease - Manage water supplies with water harvesting Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - correct answer ✔✔- Established by UNEP, 1988 - Provide assessments of state of knowledge on climate change UN Framework Convention on Climate Change - correct answer ✔✔- 154 governments, 1992 - Aim to stabilise GHG concentrations - Develop NAPA (National Programme of Action) for LEDCs to decide how to meet most urgent needs to adapt to climate change Kyoto Protocol - correct answer ✔✔- 160 nations, 1997 - Call for legal commitment to reduce CO2 and other GHG to 1990 levels - US signed but not ratified - Only fully in effect by 2005 Environmental Values - correct answer ✔✔worldviews that shape the way an individual perceives and evaluates environmental issues Ecocentric - correct answer ✔✔A worldview that places equal value on all living organisms and the ecosystems in which they live. Anthropocentric - correct answer ✔✔A worldview that focuses on human welfare and well-being. Technocentric - correct answer ✔✔A worldview that is centered on technology and its ability to control and protect the environment Natural Capital - correct answer ✔✔Natural resources and services that keep us alive and support our economies Natural Resource - correct answer ✔✔Any resource found in nature that is used to benefit humans Ecosystem Services - correct answer ✔✔A function performed by an ecosystem that benefits humans Global Warming - correct answer ✔✔A gradual increase in the temperature of Earth's atmosphere Pollution - correct answer ✔✔Release of harmful materials into the environment Ozone Layer - correct answer ✔✔Protective layer in atmosphere that shields earth from UV radiation Deforestation - correct answer ✔✔The removal of trees faster than forests can replace themselves Recycling - correct answer ✔✔Collecting and reprocessing a resource or product to make into new products Alternative Energy - correct answer ✔✔Any source of energy other than fossil fuels Ecosystem - correct answer ✔✔A system composed of organisms and nonliving components of an environment Inputs of Value Systems - correct answer ✔✔Media, Science, Education, Politics, Religion, Culture, and Economics Outputs of Value Systems - correct answer ✔✔Actions, Decisions, Perspectives, and Evalutations Storages - correct answer ✔✔Places that contain matter or energy in a system Flows - correct answer ✔✔Inputs and outputs of matter or energy in a system Processes - correct answer ✔✔Transfers or transformations of matter and energy in a system Open systems - correct answer ✔✔Exchange both matter and energy across the system boundaries Closed systems - correct answer ✔✔Exchange energy but not matter across the system boundaries Isolated systems - correct answer ✔✔Exchange neither matter nor energy across the system boundaries Transformations - correct answer ✔✔Processes that change the form or state of energy or matter Transfers - correct answer ✔✔Processes that move energy or matter from one place to another Model - correct answer ✔✔A representation of an object or system System - correct answer ✔✔A group of parts that work together as a whole Biosphere - correct answer ✔✔Part of Earth in which life exists including land, water, and air or atmosphere Pollination - correct answer ✔✔The transfer of pollen from flower to flower Nutrients - correct answer ✔✔The chemical substances that an organism needs to sustain life Habitat - correct answer ✔✔The natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other organism. Recreation - correct answer ✔✔Activity done for enjoyment or exercise Homeostasis - correct answer ✔✔Process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment natural capital is exported to developed countries for processing. Examples include countries in sub- Saharan Africa, as well as parts of Asia and South America. Newly Industrializing Country (NIC) - correct answer ✔✔A former LEDC that is slowly beginning to industrialize. Examples include China, India, South Africa, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Turkey, Mexico, and Brazil. Malthusian Theory - correct answer ✔✔Malthus (stuffy white guy c. late 1700s) believed human population grows geometrically, while food supply grows arithmetically. He postulated that as long as there was fertile land, we can feed the population. However, his theory is often considered simplistic as poverty is often the source of poor food distribution, NOT production. Additionally, Malthus could not foresee many of the technological innovations of the future, i.e. commercial farming. Boserup's Theory - correct answer ✔✔Ester Boserup (cool scientist lady c. 1978) believed the increase of population would "stimulate" production of new technologies, and that population growth would lead to natural development and innovations - a very technocentric viewpoint. However, this theory operates on the assumption that the environment is "closed" with no immigration/emigration, and overpopulation can actually lead to desperate/unsuitable farming practices. High Infant and Childhood Mortality - correct answer ✔✔According to UNICEF, one child dies every 3 seconds from malnutrition and disease. It is an insurance to have more children than needed so some reach adulthood. (Under "Why do people have large families?") Security in Old Age - correct answer ✔✔If it is tradition in a family/culture for children to care for their parents, the more children a couple has, the less likely it is the children will struggle to support their parents. (Under "Why do people have large families?") Children as an Economic Asset - correct answer ✔✔In some LEDCs, children help with farming and prosperity for the land. In MEDCs, children are dependent on parents for education and take longer to contribute to society. (Under "Why do people have large families?") Status of Women - correct answer ✔✔The traditional status of women makes them subordinate to men, with their only function being childbearing. In some cultures, more children (especially boys) mean greater worth/status for women. (Under "Why do people have large families?") Unavailability of Contraceptives - correct answer ✔✔In LEDCs women cannot afford them or are restricted in their access to them. (Under "Why do people have large families?") Provide Education - correct answer ✔✔In the form of basic literacy for kids and adults. (Under: "Ways to Reduce Family Size") Improve Health - correct answer ✔✔Prevent spread of disease through hygiene, nutrition, and provision of medicine and vaccines. (Under: "Ways to Reduce Family Size") Enhance Income - correct answer ✔✔Small-scale projects (microlending) focus on family-level prosperity. A small loan is given to a peasant to buy fertilizer; a woman to buy pans/bake bread; a weaver to buy yarn, etc. Through this, small enterprises can start. Return of the loan is guaranteed through credit associations formed by members of the community. (Under: "Ways to Reduce Family Size") Improve resource management - correct answer ✔✔Local projects, NOT large-scale projects, work best in LEDCs - soil conservation measures or growing tree seedlings. Large projects force some LEDCs into debt and encourage "cash-cropping" (e.g. tobacco, oil palm). (Under: "Ways to Reduce Family Size") Demographic Transition Model - correct answer ✔✔A pattern of decline in mortality and fertility of a country as a result of economic development. However, they possess some limitations: not all countries go through each stage, stage 5 itself did not exist until recently, some countries have a compressed timescale (Singapore, Hong Kong), and it is a very eurocentric model that assumes all countries will industrialize. Stage 1 of a Demographic Transition Model - correct answer ✔✔High stationary (pre-industrial societies). High birth rate due to no birth control, high infant mortality rates, culture encourages large families, high death rates due to disease, famine, poor hygiene, and little medicine. Stage 2 of a Demographic Transition Model - correct answer ✔✔Early expanding (LEDCs). Death rate drops as sanitation and food improve, disease reduced so lifespan increases. Birth rate still high but mortality falls. Stage 3 of a Demographic Transition Model - correct answer ✔✔Late expanding (wealthier LEDCs). Birth rates fall due to access to contraception, improved healthcare, education, and emancipation of women. Population levels off and low mortality rate for infants means smaller families are desired. Stage 4 of a Demographic Transition Model - correct answer ✔✔Late stationary (MEDCs). Low birth/death rates, industrialized countries, and a stable population size. Stage 5 of a Demographic Transition Model - correct answer ✔✔Declining (MEDCs). Population may not be replaced as fertility rate is low. Problem of ageing workforce. Anti-natalist policy - correct answer ✔✔Policies used to suppress high birth rates and control population growth. Legislation includes taxation/job loss for individuals with children, access to education about benefits of birth control, or urbanization which can lead to smaller living accommodations and less desire for kids. Pro-natalist policy - correct answer ✔✔Policies used to encourage high birth rates and help a declining population. Legislation includes lowered taxes/economic incentives to have kids and improved public health/sanitation to stimulate population growth. Natural capital - correct answer ✔✔A resource that has some value to humans. Can either be a natural resource that has value to us (trees, soil, water, living organisms, etc.) or natural resources that provide services that support life (forests that provide flood/erosion protection; processes like photosynthesis). Renewable includes living species and ecosystems that use solar energy/photosynthesis or non-living things like groundwater or the ozone layer. Non-renewable includes minerals, soil, water in aquifers, and fossil fuels. Natural income - correct answer ✔✔The rate of replacement of a particular resource or natural capital. Use Valuation - correct answer ✔✔Natural capital that we can slap a price on. It includes the economic pricing of marketable goods, ecological functions (e.g. water storage), and recreational functions like tourism. Non-use Valuation - correct answer ✔✔Natural capital that cannot be priced. This includes NC that has intrinsic value, or has unknown future uses, or if it has value simply by existing for use by future generations. community - correct answer ✔✔is a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat Simpson's diversity index - correct answer ✔✔is a method for measuring diversity. Areas high high D value suggest a stable and mature site. A low value D could suggest pollution, recent colonization or agricultural management. habitat - correct answer ✔✔is the environment in which a species normally lives. habitat diversity - correct answer ✔✔refers to the range of different habitats in an ecosystem or biome genetic diversity - correct answer ✔✔refers to the range of genetic material present in a population of a species endemic species - correct answer ✔✔species that are not found anywhere else conservation - correct answer ✔✔means 'keeping what we have' it aims to protect habitants and ecosystems evolution - correct answer ✔✔is the cumulative, gradual change in the genetic composistion of a species of many successive generations, ultimately giving rise to species different from the common anscetors- Charles Darwin natural selection - correct answer ✔✔the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin, and it is now regarded as be the main process that brings about evolution. genes - correct answer ✔✔are sections of DNA found in the nucleas of all cells. they are essentially the intructions from which a species is produced. gene pool - correct answer ✔✔refers to all the diffrent types of gene found within every individual of a species isolation - correct answer ✔✔when populations become separated reproductive isolation - correct answer ✔✔when genes cannot be exchanged between species speciation - correct answer ✔✔is the formation of new species when populations of a species become isolated and evolve differently geographical isolation - correct answer ✔✔is a physical barrier such as a mountain range that causes populations to become separated` causes of isolation - correct answer ✔✔environmental change such as mountain formation, change in river courses, sea level change, climatic change or plate movements plate tectonics - correct answer ✔✔the movements and forming and reforming of plates mass extinction - correct answer ✔✔is a period in which at least 75 % of the total number of species on the earth at the time are wiped out. there have been 5 of these so far they include: Tertiary extinction- asteriod and major rearrangement of worlds landmass that was caused by plate movement. happened 65 million years ago the end triassic extinction occured 199 million 0 214million years ago caused by mass floods of lava from an opening in the atlantic ocean the triassic extinction 251 million years ago caused by a comet or asteriod late devonian extinction occured 364 million years ago caused by global cooling the ordovician 439 million years ago caused by a drop in sea levels species loss - correct answer ✔✔reasons for current rates of increased human influence, such as habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species,pollution, overharvesting and hunting. conflict between exploitation, sustainable development and conservation IUCN - correct answer ✔✔publishes data in the Red list of threatened species in several categories factors used to determine conservation status - correct answer ✔✔population size, degree of specialisation, distribution, reproductive potential, behaviour, geographic range, degree of fragmentation, quality of habitat, trophic level and probability of extinction falkland islands wolf- this is an extinct animal. - correct answer ✔✔it was the only native land mammal of the Falkland islands, it was said to have lived in burrows, and because there were no rodents, probable that diet consisted of ground nesting birds. setlers considered this animal to be a threat to sheep so they set out a hugh scale operation of poisoning and shooting the animal. due to the abscene of predation that animal trusted humans. the removal of a top predator influenced the food chain Iberian Lynx - this is a critically endangered animal. - correct answer ✔✔this is native to the Iberian peninsula, has dinstinctive leopard like spots, smaller than most nortern relative so hunts smaller animals, it inhabits open scrubs. it is a specialized feeder and often kill carnivore species, this diet makes in vulunerable and the rapid decline in rabitats has affected it. habitat destruction and alteration have reduced population numbers. now it is fully protected under law, and public awareness and education programmes are put in place. international seminars have been held American Bald eagle - improved by intervention - correct answer ✔✔declared the national emblem of USA, one of the largest birds in north america. they live near large bodies of open water like lakes and nest in roost in tall trees, they migrate in warmer temperatures to access food, their population decline was due to mass shooting, use of pesticdes (DDT) on crops, destruction of habitat and contamination of water ways. outlaw of DDT, and now there is law protecting them ecological reasons - correct answer ✔✔for species and habitat preservation, are concerned with ecosystems and their functioning economic arguments - correct answer ✔✔for species and habitat preservation involve valuation of ecotourism, the genetic resource and commercial considerations of the natural capital fundamental niche - correct answer ✔✔the full range of conditions and resources in which a species could survive and reproduce realised niche - correct answer ✔✔the actual conditions and resources in which a species exists due to biotic interactions. limiting factors - correct answer ✔✔factors which slow down growth of a population as it reaches its carrying capacity carrying capacity - correct answer ✔✔the maximum number of a species or 'load' that can be sustainably supported by a given area population dynamics - correct answer ✔✔the study of the factors that cause changes to population sizes competition - correct answer ✔✔when two or more individual organisms try to exploit a resource that is in limited supply intraspecific competition - correct answer ✔✔competition between members of the same species interspecific competition - correct answer ✔✔competition between individuals of different species competitive exclusion - correct answer ✔✔when interspecific competition results in one species being driven out by the other predation - correct answer ✔✔when one animal eats another animal herbivory - correct answer ✔✔when an animal eats a plant parasitism - correct answer ✔✔A symbiotic relationship where one organism (the parasite) lives in or on another (the host) feeding on or from it. One suffers, the other is harmed. mutualism - correct answer ✔✔a symbiotic relationship where both species benefit. S and J population curves - correct answer ✔✔generalised responses of populations to a particular set of conditions (biotic and abiotic factors) community - correct answer ✔✔a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat ecosystem - correct answer ✔✔a community and the physical environment it interacts with. respiration - correct answer ✔✔the conversion of organic matter into carbon dioxide and water in all living organisms, releasing energy. photosynthesis - correct answer ✔✔the process by which green plants make their own food from water and carbon dioxide using energy from sunlight food chain - correct answer ✔✔the flow of energy from one organism to the next. It shows the feeding relationships between species in an ecosystem trophic level - correct answer ✔✔the position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or in a group of organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food chains compensation point - correct answer ✔✔when all carbon dioxide that plants produce in respiration is used up in photosynthesis, the rates of the two processes are equal and their is no net release of either oxygen or carbon dioxide. producers (autotrophs) - correct answer ✔✔an organism which produces its own food photoautotrophs (green plants, algae, etc) - correct answer ✔✔make their own food from carbon dioxide and water using energy from sunlight chemoautotrophs - correct answer ✔✔make their own food from simple compounds such as ammonia, hydrogen sulphide or methane, not requiring sunlight consumers (heterotrophs) - correct answer ✔✔obtain their food by eating other organisms food web - correct answer ✔✔a complex network of interrelated food chains ecological pyramids - correct answer ✔✔quantitative models, usually measured for a given area and time. Includes pyramids of numbers, biomass and productivity solar constant - correct answer ✔✔the solar energy reaching the top of Earth's atmosphere (1400 J s-1 m-2 or 1400 watts per second) productivity - correct answer ✔✔the conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time. It is the rate of growth or biomass increase in plants and animals. It is measured per unit area per unit time. gross productivity (GP) - correct answer ✔✔the total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time net productivity (NP) - correct answer ✔✔the gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time that remains after deductions due to respiration gross primary productivity (GPP) - correct answer ✔✔the total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time by green plants. It is the energy fixed by green plants by photosynthesis net primary productivity (NPP) - correct answer ✔✔the total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time by biomass - correct answer ✔✔the living mass of an organism or organisms. Measured by obtaining the dry mass and usually calculated per unit area. atmosphere - correct answer ✔✔a dynamic system of inputs, outputs, storages and flows the air - the zones between the lithosphere and space (about 1,100km deep) current atmospheric composition - correct answer ✔✔21% oxygen 78% nitrogen 0.04% carbon dioxide <1% others (argon and other gases) troposphere - correct answer ✔✔the atmosphere from 0km to 10km above sea level stratosphere - correct answer ✔✔the atmosphere from 10km to 50km above sea level bubbles trapped in ice - correct answer ✔✔a way of measuring atmospheric conditions in the past - looking at composition of the trapped air the greenhouse effect - correct answer ✔✔a natural and necessary phenomenon maintaining suitable temperatures for life on Earth light from the sun passes through the atmosphere > 50% is absorbed > the Earth heats up > infrared heat is radiated from Earth > greenhouse gases reflect this heat back to Earth greenhouse gases (GHG) - correct answer ✔✔water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane = the main ones stratospheric ozone - correct answer ✔✔a key component of the atmosphere which provides protection for living things from UV radiation from the sun - aka "the ozone layer" ozone - correct answer ✔✔O3 - found in two layers: GOOD - the stratosphere BAD - the troposphere ultraviolet radiation (UV) effects on life - correct answer ✔✔- genetic mutation and subsequent effects on health - damage to living tissue - cataract formation on eyes - skin cancer - suppression of the immune system - damage to photosynthetic organisms, especially phytoplankton - damage to consumers of photosynthetic organisms, especially zooplankton ultraviolet radiation (UV) benefits - correct answer ✔✔- stimulates the production of vitamin D - can be used to treat psoriasis and vitiligo (skin diseases) - use as a steriliser and purifier as it kills pathogenic (disease causing) bacteria ozone-depleting substance (ODS) - correct answer ✔✔All these substances contribute to the reduction of stratospheric ozonne: - chloroflourocarbons (CFCs or freons) --> found in spray cans and refrigerants --> release chlorine atoms - hydrochloroflourocarbons (HCFCs) --> as an alternative to CFCs --> release chlorine atoms, but shorter lifespan in the atmosphere (but also stronger greenhouse effect) - halons --> fire extinguishers --> release bromine atoms - methyl bromide --> pesticide --> releases bromine atoms - nitrogen oxides (NOx) --> from bacterial breakdown of fertilisers and high flying aircraft --> NO reacts with ozone reducing ODS (altering human activity producing pollution) - correct answer ✔✔- replace gas-blown plastics - replace CFCs with carbon dioxide, propane or air as a propellant - replace aerosols with pump action sprays - replace methyl bromide pesticides HOWEVER, most CFC replacements are greenhouse gases reducing ODS (regulating and reducing the pollutants at the source) - correct answer ✔✔- recover and recyle CFCs from refrigerants and AC units - legislate to have fridges returned to the manufacturer and coolants removed and stored - capture CFCs from scrap car air conditioner units reducing ODC (clean up and restoration) - correct answer ✔✔- add ozone to or remove chlorine from the stratosphere - not practical but has been suggested that ozone filled balloons be released the Montreal Protocol (outline) - correct answer ✔✔an international agreement made by the UN made to phase out the production of ODS in 1987 since 1987, it has been strengthened by 7 ammendments (e.g. LEDCs had more time to phase out ODS than MEDCs) 197 countries ratified the agreement = the first universally ratified UN agreement the Montreal Protocol (significance) - correct answer ✔✔1. best example of international cooperation on an environmental issue 2. an example of the precautionary principle in science-based decision making 3. an example of many experts in their field coming together to research the problem and find a solution 4. the first to recognise that different countries could phase-out ODS at different rates according to their economic status 5. the first with regulations that were carefully monitored the Montreal Protocol (effects) - correct answer ✔✔there is a clear trend in reduction of ODS since the Montreal Protocol: total ODS consumption was at = - 41,500,000 tonnes in 1986 reducing urban air pollution (regulating and reducing the pollutants at the point of source) - correct answer ✔✔- government regulation/tax - catalytic converters to clean exhaust of primary pollutants from car exhausts - fuel quality may be regulated by governments reducing urban air pollution (clean up and restoration) - correct answer ✔✔- afforestation to increase carbon sinks and filter air (but does not reduce emissions) - re-greening of cities --> more trees, parks = absorbs carbon dioxide acid deposition - correct answer ✔✔acid coming down from the air wet deposition - correct answer ✔✔acid deposition in the form of rain or snow dry deposition - correct answer ✔✔acid deposition in the form of ash or dry particles acid deposition pollutants - correct answer ✔✔primary - sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides these react with water to create sulphuric and nitric acids acid deposition effects (coniferous forests) - correct answer ✔✔- yellowing of leaves and buds as chlorophyll is lost - reduced growth in the forest --> leads nutrients being washed away and pathogens to gain entry - symbiotic root microbes are killed --> reduces the availability of nutrients - reduces ability of soil particles to hold onto nutrients (e.g. calcium, magnesium and potassium) - releases toxic aluminium ions from soil particles which damage roots acid deposition effects (aluminium ions on aquatic organisms) - correct answer ✔✔aluminium is a common element in the soil, but acid precipitation increases its solubility - Al ends up in rivers and streams through leaching - fish are very sensitive to Al in water as it affects their oxygen and salt regulation acid deposition effects (lichens) - correct answer ✔✔symbiotic pairing of and alga and fungi - found on trees and buildings particularly sensitive to gaseous pollutants such as sulphur dioxide - therefore a useful indirect measure of pollution (indicator species) reduction of acid deposition (altering human activity producing pollution) - correct answer ✔✔- replace fossil fuel use by alternatives: ethanol to run cars, renewable energy sources for electricity - reduce overall demand for electricity: education campaigns to turn off lights and insulate houses - use less private transport - more public, more cycling and walking - use low sulphur fuels EVALUATION - also reduces CO2, but we still live in a fossil fuel reliant society - demand for power is increasing, especially in China and India reduction of acid deposition (regulating and reducing the pollutants at the point of source) - correct answer ✔✔- clean-up technologies at 'end of pipe' locations [point of emission]. e.g. scrubbing in chimneys to remove sulphur dioxide - catalytic converters convert nitrous oxides back into nitrogen EVALUATION - expensive and costs passed on to consumers - catalysers are cost effective if maintained, but are expensive to buy reduction of acid deposition (clean up and restoration) - correct answer ✔✔- liming acidified lakes and rivers (adding lime to increase pH) - recolonisation of damaged areas - liming forestry plantations (to increase pH) --> trees increase pH as they remove nutrients - international agreements EVALUATION - liming is effective, but must be repeated regularly and is expensive - this treats the symptoms but not the cause Clean Air Act - correct answer ✔✔an agreement in North America in 1995 to attempt to lower sulphur dioxide levels back to pre-1980 levels - allowances for sulphur dioxide levels are set, but can be bought, sold and traded precombustion techniques - correct answer ✔✔the removal of sulphur from fuel before it is burned - this reduces the sulphur dioxide emissions Defecation - correct answer ✔✔Elimination of feces Assimilation - correct answer ✔✔Describes the act of taking something in and absorbing it fully. Leaching - correct answer ✔✔Drain away from soil, ash, or similar material by the action of percolating liquid, especially rainwater. Humus - correct answer ✔✔Rich, dark organic material formed by decay of vegetable and animal matter, essential to soil's fertility Calcification - correct answer ✔✔Process of soil formation characterized by accumulation of calcium in lower horizons. Salinization/alkalization - correct answer ✔✔Excessive sodium concentration may occur due to capillary rise of water from water table that is saline and close to the surface. Decomposition - correct answer ✔✔A chemical reaction that breaks down compounds into simpler products. Decomposers - correct answer ✔✔Detritivores that break down organic matter into simpler compounds inevitably, the later communities in such a sequence or sere are more complex than those that appear earlier. Soil Profile - correct answer ✔✔A vertical section through a soil, from the surface down to the parent material, revealing the soil layers or horizons. Percolate - correct answer ✔✔(Of a liquid or gas) filter gradually through a porous surface or substance. Leguminous - correct answer ✔✔A Plants of the pea family, used as crops, with distinctive seed pods. Contour Plowing - correct answer ✔✔Plowing around the contour of a hill rather than up and down, to conserve water and prevent erosion Diffusion - correct answer ✔✔High to low concentration --> from air Dentrification - correct answer ✔✔Nitrogen in soil --> nitrogen in animals Porosity - correct answer ✔✔Water holding capacity of the soil Permeability - correct answer ✔✔Rate of water drainage Mineralization - correct answer ✔✔Decomposition or oxidation of the chemical compounds in organic matter into plant-accessible forms. Weathering - correct answer ✔✔The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface. Cereals - correct answer ✔✔Grain used for food: wheat, maize or rye Undernourishment - correct answer ✔✔When people don't get enough energy from their food. Malnourishment - correct answer ✔✔When food doesn't contain essential nutrients like: protein, vitamins, and certain minerals. --> More common than undernourishment. Cash Cropping - correct answer ✔✔Growing crops for the market to se,, not to eat yourself. Advantage: Profitable, and earns revenue for the government. Disadvantage: Lots of irrigation and land, too much fertilisers and pesticides, less biodiversity, monoculture, susceptible to weather. Commercial Farming - correct answer ✔✔Farming takes place on large, profit-making scale, maximizing yields per hectare. Advantage: Lots of profit. Disadvantage: Risky because monoculture. Low labour input. Less biodiversity. More ecological damage. Intensive Farming - correct answer ✔✔Intensive farming uses land more intensively with high levels of input and output per unit area. Advantage: Lots of yield. Disadvantage: Soil exhaustion → depleted nutrients Extensive Farming - correct answer ✔✔Uses more land with a lower density of stocking or planting and lower inputs and corresponding outputs. Advantages: small inputs of labor, fertilizers, and capital, relative to the land area being farmed. Less soil exhaustion Disadvantages: Yields tend to be much lower than with intensive farming in the short term. Large land requirements limit the habitat of wild species (in some cases, even very low stocking rates can b Pastoral Farming - correct answer ✔✔Raising animals, usually on grass, and on land that is not suitable for crops. Advantages: Lower use of land Disadvantages: Over-grazing and increased desertification Arable Farming - correct answer ✔✔Farming is sowing crops on good soils to eat directly or to feed to animals. → growing crops on good soil Advantages: High output/yields Disadvantage: 10% of the world is only arable. Mixed Farming - correct answer ✔✔Farming that has both crops and livestock and is a system in itself where animal waste is used to fertilize the crops and improve soil structure and some crops are fed to the animals. Advantages: animal dungs can be fertilizers, and crops can be used to feed the animals. Higher biodiversity (Permaculture) Disadvantages: There is no need to import anything. Soil Degradation - correct answer ✔✔Decrease in the quality of the soil