Behavioral Psychology: Exploring Theories and Concepts, Exams of Nursing

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MCAT SOCIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY FINAL

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What are sensory/afferent neurons responsible for? Transmitting sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain. What are motor/efferent neurons responsible for? Transmitting motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. Interneurons Located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord and are often linked to reflexive behavior. What are the components of the central nervous system? Brain and spinal cord What is the function and components of the peripheral nervous system? Nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord; the PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body and can be subdivided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems. What is the function and components of the somatic nervous system? Made up of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles. Connects the central nervous system to the muscles that control voluntary movements and reflex arcs. What is the function and components of the autonomic nervous system? Regulates involuntary functions such as heartbeat, body temperature, respiration, digestion, and secretions from glands. The ANS is subdivided into two categories: the parasympathetic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system. What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

Conserves energy. "Rest and digest" response. What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system? Uses energy and is activated by stress. "Fight or flight" response. Which neurotransmitter mediates the sympathetic nervous system? Epinephrine Which neurotransmitter mediates the parasympathetic nervous system? Acetylcholine What are the 3 layers of meninges in the brain from superficial to deep?

1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater Where is cerebrospinal fluid produced? Choroid plexus in the ventricles of the brain. Cerebral cortex The outer layer of the brain that controls consciousness, memory, and language. What anatomical structures are located in the forebrain? Basal ganglia, hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, and hypothalamus. What is the function of the basal ganglia? Movement and motor control. What is the function of the hippocampus? Learning and memory. What is the function of the amygdala? Emotions and fear. What is the function of the thalamus? Sensory relay station. Thalamus receives the sensory impulse the thalamus sorts and transmits them to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. What is the function of the hypothalamus?

Maintaining homeostasis; sleep-wake cycles, temperature, blood pH regulation, glands, etc. What anatomical structures are found in the midbrain? Superior and inferior colliculus. What is the function of the superior colliculus? Vision/ocular muscles What is the function of the inferior colliculus? Hearing/auditory What anatomical structures are found in the hindbrain? Cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation. What is the function of the cerebellum? Balance and coordination. What is the function of the medulla oblangata? Relays messages between your spinal cord and brain; and is essential for regulating your cardiovascular and respiratory systems. What is the function of the reticular formation? Arousal and alertness. Computed tomography (CT) Brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain. Electroencephalography (EEG) Sensitive electrodes are placed on the scalp to measure voltages produced by brain activity (i.e. electricity). Positron emission tomography (PET) A method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A method of imaging that uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen to map out hydrogen dense regions in the body. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) MRI technique that measures changes associated with blood flow; also used to monitor neural activity.

What is the function of the lateral hypothalamus? Hunger center; it is able to detect when the body needs more food/fluids. What is the function of the ventromedial hypothalamus? Satiety/fullness center; signals to stop eating. What is the function of the anterior hypothalamus? Controls sexual behavior. What is the function of the pineal gland? Secretes melatonin; regulates circadian rhythms. What is the function of the frontal lobe? Manages executive functioning, perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning; contains the prefrontal cortex, motor cortex and Broca's area. What is the function of the temporal lobe? Hearing What is the function of the occipital lobe? Vision What is the function of the parietal lobe? Somatosensory processing; this projection area is the destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature and pain. What are the 4 lobes of the brain?

1. Frontal
2. Parietal
3. Temporal
4. Occipital What does the left hemisphere of the brain mediate? Dominant hemisphere; associated with language production and comprehension, logic, and math skills. What does the right hemisphere of the brain mediate? Non-dominant hemisphere; associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing. Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter that is primarily found in the peripheral nervous system. Contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily secretions, and slows heart rate. Epinephrine Neurotransmitter that is released by the adrenal glands in response to strong emotions (i.e., fear, anger). Results in increased heart rate, muscle strength, blood pressure, and sugar metabolism. Norepinephrine Neurotransmitter that is involved in controlling alertness/wakefulness and promotes the fight or flight response. Dopamine Neurotransmitter that mediates movement, posture, and muscle coordination. Serotonin Neurotransmitter that plays a role in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) An inhibitory neurotransmitter that is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain. Glycine An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Glutamate An excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. What amino acid are catecholamines derived from? Tyrosine What are the 3 catecholamines? Dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. What are the steps in catecholamine synthesis?

1. Tyrosine → L-Dopa
2. L-Dopa → Dopamine
3. Dopamine → Norepinephrine
4. Norepinephrine → Epinephrine Neuropeptides

Neuromodulators that bind to receptors and activate enzymes; chain of amino acids. Anterior pituitary gland Gland that is mediated by the hypothalamus that regulates the hormones released in the endorcrine system. Adrenal medulla Part of the adrenal gland that releases norepinephrine and epinephrine in response to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Adrenal cortex Part of the adrenal gland that secretes corticosteroids and sex hormones. Innate behavior Behavior that is inherited rather than learned. Learned behavior Behavior that is based on experience/environment and is learned. Alar plate A neural structure in the embryonic nervous system; part of the dorsal neural tube that involves the communication of somatic and visceral sensory impulses. Gives rise to sensory neurons. Basal plate A neural structure in the embryonic system; part of the ventral neural tube that involves motor neuron communication. Gives rise to motor neurons. Gross motor skills Skills that incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion. Examples: Crawling, walking, etc. Fine motor skills Skills that involve the movement of smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes; providing more intricate movements. Examples: Drawing, catching, tracking motion, etc. Parallel play

When a child plays near other children with similar toys but does not try to influence them. What is sensation and perception? Sensation is the conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in the nervous system. Perception is the processing of that information. Distal stimulus Stimulus in the environment. Proximal stimulus The optical image on the retina (i.e., rods and cones) in the eye; perception of the distal stimulus in the eye. Ganglia Clusters of cell bodies of neurons in the peripheral nervous system. Photoreceptors Cell receptor that responds to light. Hair cells Hearing receptors in the organ of corti. Nociceptors Pain receptors. Thermoreceptors Receptors that respond to changes in temperature. Osmoreceptors Receptors that detect change in osmotic pressure of body fluids. Absolute threshold The minimum stimulus energy required to activate the sensory system. Subliminal perception Perception of a stimulus below the threshold. Discrimination testing Varying a physical stimulus slightly and observing the effect on the experience or behavior of a subject in order to better understand perceptual processing.

Just noticeable difference (jnd) The smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect. Weber's Law There is a constant ratio between the change in the stimulus magnitude needed to produce a just noticeable difference and the magnitude of the original stimulus. Signal detection theory Theory that focuses on the changes in our perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal (i.e., psychological) and external (i.e., environmental) context. Response bias The tendency of a person to answer questions on a survey untruthfully or misleadingly. Adaptation The detection of a stimulus changes over time. Sclera Tough fibrous white portion of the eye. Retina Contains rods and cones for contrast and colored vision; functions to convert incoming photons of light to electrical signals. Cornea Clear structure in front of the eye that gathers and focuses light. What is function of the dilator pupillae muscle of the eye? Widens pupil under sympathetic response. What is the function of the constrictor pupillae muscle of the eye? Constricts pupil under parasympathetic response. Aqueous humor Clear fluid secreted by ciliary bodies that functions to provide nutrients to the lens and maintains pressure within the eye. This fluid is found between the lens and cornea. Accommodation Accommodation is the process of changing the shape of the lens to focus on near or distant objects. Vitreous humor Transparent jellylike tissue filling the eyeball behind the lens.

Ciliary muscles Muscle that contracts and dilates to change the shape of the lens. Rods and cones Photoreceptors found in the peripheral fovea in the retina; responsible for light/dark vision. Photoreceptors found in the center of the fovea in the retina; responsible for color vision. Pupil Black part of the eye that allows light to enter the eye. Iris Colored part of the eye that contains muscles that control how much light enters the eye. What are parvocellular cells specialized for? Shape detection What are magnocellular cells specialized for? Motion detection What are the 3 ossicles of the ear?

1. Malleus
2. Stapes
3. Incus Pinna/auricle Visible portion of the outer ear that gathers soundwaves to channel them into the ear canal. What is the function of the ossicles? Increase/amplify the intensity of sound from the middle ear to the inner ear. What is the function of the Eustachian tube? Equalizes pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane. What structures are found within the inner ear? Cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals. What fluid fills the inner ear structures?

Endolymph Cochlea Spiral structure of the inner ear containing the organ of Corti that is responsible for transducing the mechanical movement of sound vibration into neural activity. Vestibule Part of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule that are used to balance and determine your orientation in 3-D space. What are semicircular canals responsible for? Balance and equilibrium. Contains hair cells that are moved by fluid. How is sound processed by the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus? Sound information is passed from the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brainstem where it ascends to the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus which projects to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe for sound processing. Place theory The location of a hair cell on the basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch when that hair cell is vibrated. What are the five basic taste sensations? Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umani/savory. What are the four modalities of somatosensation?

1. Pressure
2. Vibration
3. Pain
4. Temperature What are the five receptors for somatosensation?
5. Pacinian corpuscles
6. Meissner's corpuscles
7. Merkle cells
8. Ruffini endings
9. Free nerve endings What is the function of Pacinian corpuscles? Sensing deep pressure and vibration.

What is the function of Meissner's corpuscles? Detecting light touch. What is the function of Merkle cells? Sensing deep pressure and texture. What is the function of Ruffini endings? Stretching Free nerve endings Detecting pain and temperature. Gate Theory of Pain Special gating mechanism that can turn pain signals on and off thus affecting whether or not pain is felt. Kinesthetic sense/proprioception The ability to determine your orientation in space. Bottom-up processing Object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection; brain uses smaller bits of information to create a cohesive image. Top-down processing Driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the smaller components that make up the image. Perceptual organization The ability to use top-down and bottom-up processing to create a complete picture or idea. What is the difference between binocular and monocular cues? Monocular cues provide depth information when viewing with one eye. Binocular cues provide information taken when viewing with both the eyes. Gestalt principles Ways the brain infers missing parts of a picture when the picture is incomplete. Law of Proximity Elements that are close to one another tend to be perceived as a whole. Law of Similarity Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together.

Law of Good Continuation Elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together. Subjective contours Shapes that are perceived by contouring. Define the Law of Closure. When a space is enclosed by a contour it tends to be perceived as a complete figure. Habituation Repeated exposure to the same stimulus causing a decrease in response. I.e., On a long car-ride you get used to the sight of the road, dashed lines, cars, etc. Dishabituation The recovery of the response to a stimulus after habituation occurs. I.e., When approaching the exit ramp on a long car-ride ___________ occurs because the sensations you were used to changed. Escape learning Reducing the unpleasantness of something that already exists. I.e., Taking Excedrin for a migraine headache. Classical conditioning A type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological and instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli. Example: Pavlov- dog hears a bell and salivates. Unconditioned stimulus Any stimulus that brings about a reflexive and unlearned response. Unconditioned response An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus A typically neutral stimulus that through association causes a reflexive response. Conditioned response

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus. Extinction The gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing; stopping reinforcement stops the behavior. Generalization The tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli. Operant conditioning A method of learning that uses rewards and punishments for behavior; an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive (+/-) for that behavior. Positive reinforcement Adding a positive consequence or outcome to increase a behavior. Negative reinforcement Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior. Positive punishment Adding an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to decrease that behavior. Negative punishment Removing something pleasant to decrease a behavior. Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior (i.e., reinforce after 2, 4, 6, etc.). Variable-ratio schedule Reinforce a behavior after an unpredictable number of responses. (i.e., reinforce after 1, 4, 5, 9 responses, etc.). Fixed-interval schedule Reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specific time period has elapsed (i.e., reinforce after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes). Variable-interval schedule Reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying and unpredictable interval of time (i.e., reinforce after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes).

Shaping An operant conditioning technique that consists of reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior. Instinctive drift Difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors. Observational learning The process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others. Mirror neurons Neurons that fire when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action. Modeling When people learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them. Encoding The process of putting new information into memory to be able to recall that information later. Semantic encoding Putting information into a meaningful context. I.e., Mnemonics. Self-reference effect Being able to recall information better because we can put it into the context of our own lives. Maintenance rehearsal Repetition of a piece of memory to either keep it within working memory (i.e., to prevent forgetting); to store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory. Automatic processing Unconscious/passively gaining information from the environment. Controlled processing Active memorization. Method of Loci

A memorization device that uses visualization usually of an architectural or geographical nature to organize and recall information. Peg-Word system Associating numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers. I.e., One and sun, two and shoe, three and tree, etc. Chunking Taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning. I.e., Memorizing these letters backwards to spell something else: E-N-A-L-P-K-C-U-R-T- R-A-C-S-U-B Spells chunks of meaningful words: BUS, CAR, TRUCK, PLANE Sensory memory The brief storage of information experienced by the senses (i.e., visual and hearing); typically only lasts up to a few seconds. Short-term memory A memory storage system that holds a limited amount of information in awareness for a short period of time. Working memory Short-term memory that processes that are used to temporarily store, organize, and manipulate information. Long-term memory The relatively permanent and limitless storage of memory. What are the 2 types of long-term memory?

1. Explicit/declarative memory
2. Implicit/nondeclarative memory Explicit/declarative memory Memories that require conscious recall of information. Implicit/nondeclarative memory Memories that unconsciously recall information.

Semantic memory Memory of facts and knowledge. Episodic memory Memory related to specific personal experiences or events. Procedural memory Memory related to specific skills and how to do things. Serial position effect The tendency of a person to recall the first and last items on a list. Primacy and recency effect The serial position effect; remembering the first and last items on a list. Retrograde amnesia Inability to recall previously formed memories. Anterograde amnesia Inability to form new memories. Korsakoff's syndrome Memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain; related to alcoholism. Misinformation effect Misleading information is incorporated into memory after an event; alters the memory fo the event. Proactive interference Old information/memory interferes with new learning. Retroactive interference New information interferes with the recall of old information. Neuroplasticity The ability of the brain to change, grow, and adapt to changes; this is regulated via synaptic pruning. Source-monitoring error Confusion between semantic and episodic memory; a person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context under which those details were gained. Synaptic pruning Weak neural connections are broken while strong neural connections are strengthened.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) Synaptic strengthening through frequent activation and synaptic pruning. Schema Cognitive framework that consists of organized patterns of thought(s); including a concept, behavior, or sequence of events. Piaget's stages of development

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years old)
2. Preoperational (2-7 years old)
3. Concrete operational (7-11 years old)
4. Formal operational (11-adulthood) Piaget: Sensorimotor stage 0 - 2 years old. A child learns to manipulate their environment in order to meet physical needs. Piaget: Preoperational stage 2 - 7 years old. Characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration. Piaget: Concrete operational stage 7 - 11 years old. Children in this stage cannot think abstractly but can understand conversation and consider the perspectives of others. Piaget: Formal operational stage 11 years old-adulthood. Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas. Define symbolic thinking. Which cognitive development stage of development does this occur in? The ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination. Preoperational stage Define egocentrism. Which cognitive development stage of development does this occur in? The inability to imagine what another person may think or feel. Preoperational stage

Define centration. Which cognitive development stage of development does this occur in? The tendency to focus on one aspect or phenomenon; to not understand the concept of conservation. Preoperational stage Define object permanence. Which cognitive development stage of development does this occur in? Understanding that objects exist even when out of view. Sensorimotor stage Define representational thought. Which cognitive development stage of development does this occur in? The ability to represent objects in the thoughts of a person with symbols such as words. Sensorimotor stage Fluid intelligence The ability to think and solve problems flexibly and abstractly by using logic and solve problems in new or novel situations without reference to pre-existing knowledge. Crystallized intelligence Learned skills and knowledge that are acquired throughout life from past experience to solve concrete problems by using knowledge that was previously acquired through education and experience. Cognition The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. Dual-coding theory Both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information. I.e., The word "apple" and a picture of an apple can recall the same information. Mental set

The tendency to approach similar problems in the same way. Functional fixedness The tendency to think of an object only in terms of the typical use. I.e., A hammer is only used to hang up pictures instead of thinking of the hammer being used as a counterweight for a construction workers blueprint and to hang pictures up. Deductive reasoning Using general information to make specific deductions. Inductive reasoning Using specific information to draw general conclusions. Heuristic Mental shortcut Availability heuristic A type of mental shortcut that involves basing judgments on info and examples that quickly come to mind. Representative heuristic A type of mental shortcut used to determine the likelihood/probability of something happening. Base rate fallacy Using prototypical or stereotypical factors of analysis rather than actual data; neglecting factual information and using stereotypes. Confirmation bias A tendency to only seek information that supports a preconceived conclusion and to ignore information that does not support it. Belief perseverance Believing in something despite clear evidence and facts that disputes or proves this belief wrong. What do alpha waves indicate? Awake but relaxed What do beta waves indicate? Awake and alert

What do theta waves indicate? Light sleep What do delta waves indicate? Deep sleep Circadian rhythm Biological rhythms which repeat approximately every 24 hrs and are affected by external cues (i.e., light). Mesolimbic reward pathway Dopaminergic pathway in the brain that is normally involved in motivation and emotional response in which activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use and addiction. Selective attention Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli. Divided attention The ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time. Cocktail party phenomenon The phenomenon of the ability of the brain to focus on auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli; when a partygoer can focus on a single conversation in a noisy room. Phonemes Actual sound of language. Smallest unit in sound. Morphemes Structure of words. Semantics Meaning of words and sentences. Syntax Sentence structure and word order. Pragmatics The appropriate use of language in different contexts. Nativist Biological Theory

Chomsky theory that explains language acquisition as being innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD). Learning Behaviorist Theory Skinner theory that explains language acquisition as being a form of operant conditioning via reinforcement. Social Interactionist Theory Theory that explains language acquisition as being driven by the desire to communicate and behave in a social manner. Linguistic relativity hypothesis A hypothesis that is based on our world view being affected by language; language provides a framework for understanding information. Wernicke's area Language comprehension Broca's area Motor speech production Arcuate fasciculus A bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area with Broca's area; connects language comprehension with speech production. Broca's aphasia Reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language; language comprehension is relatively intact. Characterized by effortful, slow, forced, and stuttering speech. Wernicke's aphasia Comprehension of speech is lost; motor production and fluency of speech is obtained. Characterized by word salad using non-sense words instead of the intended word. Speech is not effortful or forced. Conduction aphasia Arcuate fasciculus is damaged; Since Broca's and Wernicke's areas are intact, speech production and comprehension are present and functional. The person is unable to repeat something that has been spoken because the connection between the two brain regions has been lost.

Brain areas associated with language Broca's Area = Blue Wernicke's Area = Green Supramarginal Gyrus = Yellow Angular Gyrus = Orange Primary Auditory Cortex = Pink Extrinsic moitivation External forces such as rewards or punishments. I.e., Getting money for good grades or taking money away for bad grades. Intrinsic motivation Internal forces where the behavior is personally gratifying. I.e., Studying hard to get a 520 on the MCAT. Yerkes-Dodson Law U-shaped function between the level of performance and arousal; Performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal. Primary drives Drives that arise from basic biological needs. Secondary drives Drives that are learned or acquired through experience. Negative feedback loop A feedback loop in which a system responds to a change by returning to its original state or by decreasing the rate at which the change is occurring; functions like a thermostat that interprets when to turn on the air conditioning when the room gets too warm. Positive feedback loop A feedback loop in which change in a system is amplified to produce more of a certain hormone, chemical, neurotransmitter, etc. Drive reduction theory

A theory of motivation stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis; motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological
2. Safety
3. Love/belonging
4. Esteem
5. Self-actualization Self-determination theory A theory of motivation that emphasizes 3 universal needs: (1) autonomy (i.e., Being in control of your own actions and ideas), (2) competence (i.e., The need to complete and excel at difficult tasks), and (3) relatedness , the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships. Incentive theory A theory of motivation that states behavior is motivated by the desire to pursue awards or avoid punishments. Expectancy-value theory A theory in social psychology that states the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of how much the individual values at succeeding the goal and the expectation of reaching the goal. Opponent-process theory The theory that explains tolerance; the more a drug is taken the person will require an increasing amount of that drug to achieve the same experience. What are the 7 universal emotions?
6. Happiness
7. Fear
8. Anger
9. Surprise
10. Contempt
11. Disgust
12. Sadness

James-Lange Theory of Emotion Theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion. Stimulus → Physiological response → Labelling → Emotion Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion Theory in which physiological arousal and the feeling of an emotion occur at the same time. Stimulus → Physiological response + Emotion Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory Theory in which both arousal and the labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced. Stimulus → Physiological response → Cognitive appraisal → Emotion What brain structures make up the limbic system?

1. Hippocampus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Amygdala
4. Thalamus
5. Fornix
6. Septal nuclei
7. Cerebral cortex Eustress Good/positive stress Distress Bad/negative stress General adaptation syndrome 3 distinct stages on how the body responds to stress via the sympathetic nervous system.
8. Alarm
9. Resistance
10. Exhaustion Self-concept

A set of beliefs people have about themselves that forms their understanding of who they are. Self-schema Ways in which we define ourselves; A self-given label that has certain characteristics/qualities. I.e., Athletes are associated with qualities/adjectives like: young, fit, active, etc. Gender identity The sense of being male or female. Androgyny Simultaneously both very masculine and very feminine. Gender schema A cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender and influences behavior. Ethnic identity Ethnic group in which members are born into and usually share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language. National identity Nationality that is based on political orders; The result of shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols Self-discrepancy theory A theory that states we have three selves.

1. Actual self
2. Ideal self
3. Ought self Actual self Self-concept; the way we see ourselves as we currently are. Ideal self The person we would like to be. Ought self