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BIO SCIE EXAM STUDY GUIDE WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE, Exams of Nursing

BIO SCIE EXAM STUDY GUIDE WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

Typology: Exams

2023/2024

Available from 10/28/2023

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Download BIO SCIE EXAM STUDY GUIDE WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

Highlight = Textbook Highlight Blue = Questions from Book Bold = Definition CHAPTER 1 ● organism: a life form - a living entity made up of one or more cells ● What does it mean to say that something is alive?

  • uses and acquires energy, made up of membrane bound cells, processes information, replicates, product of evolution ● theory: explanation for a general class of phenomena or observations that are supported by a wide body of evidence ● who invented the crude microscope?
  • robert hooke ● who invented the legit microscope?
  • anton van leeuwenhoek ● smallest organisms = bacteria ● cell: a highly organized compartment bound by a thin flexible structure called a plasma membrane that contains concentrated chemicals in an aqueous (watery solution) ● scientific theories have 2 components: first describes PATTERN in natural world; second identifies a mechanism or PROCESS that is responsible for creating that pattern ● cell theory: all organisms are made of cells and all cells come from preexisting cells

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

● pattern: “a lot of stuff has cells” ● process: “all cells arise from preexisting cells” ● hypothesis: a testable statement to explain a phenomenon or a set of observations ● spontaneous generation?? - Louis Pasteur and his swan necked flask and boiling and broth thing ● prediction: a measurable or observable result that must be correct if a hypothesis is valid ● what problem would arise in interpreting the results of the experiment if pasteur had (1) put different types of broth in the 2 treatments, (2) heated them for different lengths of time, or (3) used a ceramic flask for one treatment and a glass flask for the other?

  • If Pasteur had done any of the things listed, he would have had more than one variable in his experiment. this would allow critics to claim that he got different results because of the differences in the broth type, heating, or flask types - not the differences in exposure to pre- existing cells. the result would not be definitive. ● Pasteur’s experimental setup was effective because there was only one difference between the 2 treatments and because that was the only difference being tested - in this case, a broth’s exposure to preexisting cells ● if cells come from preexisting cells → individuals in an isolated population of single celled organisms are related by common ancestry → fusion of sperm and egg → common ancestry ● theory of evolution of natural selection has a pattern and process

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

  • pattern: species are related by common ancestry
  • process: descent with modification: characteristics of species can be modified from generation to generation ● evolution: change in characteristics of a population over time, species related to each other and can change over time ● darwin and wallace insight = natural selection: how evolution occurs ● 2 conditions of nat selection
  1. individuals within a population vary in characteristics that are heritable: traits that can be passed onto offspring
  2. in particular environment, certain versions of these heritable traits increase fitness ● population: group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time ● fitness: ability of an individual to produce viable offspring. individuals with high fitness produce many surviving offspring ● natural selection acts on individuals, evolutionary change acts on populations ● artificial selection: changes in populations that occur when humans select certain individuals to produce more offspring
  • example: kernel protein (1) heritable (2) scientists chose more kernel protein should breed → more offspring ● evolution occurs when heritable variation leads to differential success in reproduction ● If you understand the concepts of natural selection and evolution you should be able to describe how protein content in maize kernels changed over time using the same xaxis and yaxis in the figure when researchers selected individuals with the lowest kernel protein content to he the parents of the next generation
  • The average kernel protein content would decline from 11 percent to a much lower value over time.

related organisms but less similar in organisms that are less closely related. species that are part

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

adaptation: a trait that increases the fitness of an individual in a particular environment ● together, the cell theory and the theory of evolution provided the science of bio with two central unifiying ideas:

  1. cell = fundamental structural unit in all organisms
  2. all species are related by common ancestry and have changed over time in response to natural selection ● using the graph you just analyzed in figure 1.3, describe the average kernel protein content over time in a maize population where no selection occurred
  • The data points would be all about 11 percent, indicating no change in average kernel protein content over time. ● speciation: divergence process of creating new species
  • species come from preexisting species
  • common ancestor ● tree of life: a family tree of organisms that demonstrate genealogical relationships between species with a single ancestral species at its base ● Carl Woese - studied rRNA of organisms to understand evolutionary relationships
  • rRNA = essential part that all cells use to grow and reproduce ● phylogeny: actual genealogical relationships; “tribe source” ● if the theory of evolution is correct, then rRNA sequences should be very similar in closely

relationships between species. on a phylogenetic tree, braces that share a common ancestor

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

of the same evolutionary lineage should share certain changes in rRNA that no other species have ● phylogenetic tree: diagram that describes phylogeny of organisms ● just as a fam tree shows relationships between individuals, a phylogenetic tree shows represent species that are closely related; branches that don’t share recent common ancestors represent species that are more distantly related ● Suppose that in the same section of the rRNA, molds and other fungi have the sequence A-U-A- U-G-G-A-C. Are fungi more closely related to green algae or to land plants? explain your logic.

  • Molds and other fungi are more closely related to green algae because they differ from plants at two positions but differ from green algae at only one position. ● LUCA: “last universal common ancestor” ● tree of life 3 fundamental groups (domains): (1) bacteria, (2) archaea, (3) eukarya ● eukaryotes: cells have prominent component called the nucleus, “true kernel” ● prokaryotes: “before kernel” ● How many times larger is the eukaryotic cell in this figure than the prokaryotic cell? (p.8)
  • The eukaryotic cell is roughly 10 times bigger than the size of the prokaryotic cell. ● taxonomy: effort to name and classify organisms ● taxon: any named group ● domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya ● phylum: major lineages within each domain ● Carl Linnaeus: created 2 part system for naming organisms - genus + species
  • An organism’s genus and species designation is called its scientific name or latin name. Scientific names are always italicized. Genus names are always capitalized but

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

species names are not. ● Examine the following rRNA ribonucleotide sequences and draw a phylogenetic tree showing the relationships between the species A, B, and C that these data imply: A : A A C T A G C G C G A T B : A A C T A G C G C C A T C : T T C T A G C G G T A T

  • The phylogenetic tree should indicate that A and B are more closely related than A and C and A and B. ● Science is about formulating hypotheses and finding evidence that supports or conflicts with those hypotheses. ● Religious faith addresses questions that cannot be answered by data. The questions addressed by religions focus on why we exist and how we should live. ● State the hypothesis as precisely as possible and list the predictions it makes. ● Design an observational or experimental study that is capable of testing those predictions. ~ Giraffe Neck Case Study ~
  • Food Competition
  • Sexual Competition ● Experiments are a powerful scientific tool because they allow researchers to test the effect of a

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

single, well-defined factor on a particular phenomenon. ~ Ant Pedometer Case Study ~

  • Stumps
  • Normal
  • Stilts ● null hypothesis: specifies what should be observed when the hypothesis being tested isn’t correct ● What is the advantage of using 25 ants in each group instead of just one?

● Good scientists hypotheses make testable predictions - predictions that can be supported or rejected by collecting and analyzing data ● It is critical to include control groups. Checks for factors that might influence experimental outcome besides the factor being tested. ● The experimental conditions must be as constant or equivalent as possible ● Repeating the test is essential. ● If you understand these points, you should be able to explain (1) what you would conclude if in the first test, the normal individual had not walked 10 m on the return trip before looking for the nest - Conclude that ants were not navigating normally because they had been caught and released and transferred to a new channel. (2) what would you conclude if the stilts and stumps ants hand not navigated normally during the second test - Conclude that ants can’t navigate normally on their manipulated legs

work, pose hypotheses to answer those questions, and use experimental or observational Biologists practice evidence-based decision making. They ask questions about how organisms

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

● design an experiment to test the hypothesis that desert ants feed during the hottest part of the day because it allows them to avoid being eaten by lizards. then answer the following questions about your experimental designs.

  • test the predation rates during the hottest part of the day versus the other parts of the day. the experiment would be done in the field with natural predators. one approach would be to a capture a large amount of ants and divide the group into two and measure the predation rates when they are placed in normal habitat versus an hour after ● how does the presence of a control group in your experiment allow you to test the hypothesis?
  • the control group here is the normal condition - ants out during the hottest part of the day. if you didn’t include a control, a critic could argue that predation did or did not occur because of your experimental setup or manipulation ● how are experimental conditions controlled or standardized in a way that precludes alternative explanations of the data?
  • You would need to make sure that there is no difference in body size, walking speed, how they were captured and maintained, or any other traits that might make the ants in two groups more or less susceptible to predators. They should also be placed in the same habitat with the same predators. ●

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

evidence to decide which hypotheses are correct. 1.1 Why are cells in dead organism are different from the cells in a live organism?

  • Dead cells cannot regulate the passage of material between exterior and interior, replicate, process information, or use energy. 1.2 What evidence supported pattern and process components of the cell theory?
  • pattern: “a lot of stuff has cells”
  • process: “all cells arise from preexisting cells” pasteur confirmed with his experiment 1.3 Why would the average protein content of seeds in a natural population of grass species increase over time, if the seeds with higher content survive better and grow into individuals that produce many seeds with high protein content when they mature?
  • more offspring with high protein content → individuals with low protein content will become rare over time 1.4 How do biologists determine which of the three domains a newly discovered species belongs to by analyzing its rRNA?
  • a newly discovered species can be classified as a member of the Bacteria if the sequence of its rRNA contains some of the features found in only Bacteria 1.5 Explain the relationship between a hypothesis and a prediction and why experiments are convincing ways to test predictions.
  • A hypothesis is an explanation of how the world works; a prediction is an outcome you

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

should observe if the hypothesis is correct

  • experiments are convincing because they measure predictions from two opposing hypotheses. Anton van Leeuwenhoek made an important contribution to the development of the cell theory by inventing the more powerful microscope and was the first to describe the diversity of cells. Experimental conditions are controlled means all physical conditions except for one are identical for all groups tested. The term evolution means that populations change over time. A characteristic of an organism is heritable means the characteristic can be passed onto offspring. In biology, fitness means an individual’s ability to survive and reproduce Could both the food competition hypothesis and the sexual competition hypothesis explain why giraffes have long necks? Why? Yes. Long necks could be advantageous for more than one reason. CHAPTER 25

in the 1700s aristotle’s ideas were still popular in scientific and religious circles. the central claims were that (1) species are fixed types and (2) some species are higher - in the sense of

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

● Natural selection acts on individuals in populations but only populations evolve ● theories are all accepted on the basis of overwhelming evidence ● Special Creation

  1. all species are independent; unrelated to each other
  2. life on earth is young
  3. species are immutable, incapable of change ● pattern and process
  4. pattern component: statement that summarizes a series of observations about the natural world. the pattern component is about the facts - how things are in nature
  5. process component: mechanism that produces that pattern or set of observations ● scientific revolution - overturns existing idea about how nature works and replaces it with another, radically different idea ● Plato - claimed every organism was an example of a perfect essence, or type, created by God, and that these types were unchanging; individuals may deviate but are essentially perfect ● typological thinking is based on the idea that species are unchanging types that variations within species are unimportant or even misleading ● Aristotle ordered types of organisms known at the time into “great chain of being” or the “scale of nature”; organized by increased size and complexity with humans at top; species characteristics were fixed ●

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

being more complex or “better” - than others ● jean baptiste de lamarck - formal theory of evolution - species are not static but change through time

  • pattern: “great chain of being”
  • simple organisms at base → evolve by moving up the chain over time ● thus lamarckian evolution is progressive in the sense of always producing larger and more complex, or “better” species
  • species change over time via inheritance of acquired characters (change based on environment; passes phenotypic changes to offspring) ● population: consist of individuals of the same species that are living in the same area at the same time ● darwin claimed that instead of being unimportant or an illusion, variation among individuals in a population was the key to understanding the nature of species. biologists refer to this view as population thinking ● theory of evolution by natural selection was revolutionary bc
  • overturned idea that species are static and unchanging
  • replaced typological thinking with population thinking
  • it was scientific. proposed a mechanism that could account for change through time and made predictions that could be tested through observations and explanations ● descent with modification: species that lived in the past are the ancestors of the species existing

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

today and that species change over time ● in essence, the pattern component of the theory of evolution by natural selection makes two predictions about the nature of species:

  1. species change through time
  2. species are related by common ancestry ● fossil: any trace of an organism that has lived in the past ● fossil record: consists of all the fossils that have been found on Earth and described in scientific literature ● extant species: species living today ● sedimentary rocks : form from sand or mud or other materials deposited at locations such as beaches or river moths, form in layers ● geological time scale: a sequence named intervals in eons, eras and periods that represented the major events in earth history ● geological record indicated that the earth was much much older than the 6000 years claimed by proponents of special creation ● radiometric dating based on: (1) observed decay rates of parent to daughter atoms (2) ratio of parent to daughter atoms present in a particular rock sample ● earth is about 4.6 billion years old and the earliest signs of life appear in rocks that formed 3.4- 3.8 billion years ago. ● extinct species: a species that no longer exists ● recent analyses of the fossil record suggest that over 99 percent of all species that have ever lived are now extinct ● “law of succession” - extinct species in fossil recorded were succeeded in the same region by similar species ● transitional feature: trait in a fossil species is intermediate between those of ancestral

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

and derived species ○ fins of lungfish → stout lobed fins → tetrapods ● data like these are consistent with predictions from the theory of evolution: if the traits observed in more recent species evolved from traits in more ancient species, then transitional forms are expected to occur appropriately ● vestigial trait: reduced or incompletely developed structure that has no function, or reduced function, but is clearly similar to functioning organs or structures in closely related species ○ whales and snakes - tiny hip bones ○ ostriches and kiwi wings - cannot fly ● How would observations of transitional features be explained under special creation? ○ separate types but intermediate similar features ● how would observations of vestigial traits be explained if evolution occurred via inheritance of acquired characteristics? ○ lost during lifetime → passed onto children ● species are changing and dynamic ● pattern: similar but distinct species in same habitat (Darwin and Finches) ● process: descent with modification ● phylogenetic tree: a branching diagram that describes the ancestor descendant relationships

what scientists call internal consistency. this is the observation that data from independent

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

among species or other taxa ● homology: study of likeness ● homology: similarity that exists in species because they inherited a trait from a common ancestor ○ genetic homology : occurs in DNA nucleotide sequences, RNA nucleotide sequences, amino acid sequences ○ developmental homology : recognized in embryos; vestigial traits in embryos ○ structural homology: similarity in adult morphology or form; exists bc mammals evolved from lungfish like ancestor → arrangement of bones ● three levels of homology interact. genetic homologies → developmental homologies in embryos

  • structural homologies in adults ● experiments on homology hypotheses ○ isolated mouse gene homologous to fruit fly eyeless gene ○ inserted mouse gene into fruit fly embryo ○ stimulated expression of foreign gene in locations that normally give rise to appendages ○ observed formation of eyes on legs and antennae ● theory of evolution by natural selection predicts that homologies will occur. if species were created independently of one another, as special creation claims, these types of similarities would not occur ● speciation - process that results in one species splitting into two or more descendant species ● sources agree in supporting predictions made by a theory ● evidence for evolution most powerful evidence for any scientific theory, including evolution by natural selection , is

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

○ species change bc life on earth is ancient, species extinct, extinct species frequently resemble living species in same area, transitional features, vestigial traits, characteristics of populations vary and can be observed today ○ species are related bc closely related species often live in the same area, homologous traits are common and recognized at three levels (gene, developmental, structural) and formation of new species from preexisting can be observed today ● rather, data from many different sources are much more consistent with evolution than with special creation. descent with modification is a successful and powerful scientific theory because it explains observations such as vestigial traits and the close relationships among species on neighboring islands ● determine what kind of evidence would support the hypothesis that birds evolved from dinosaurs ○ you would find transitional fossil dinosaurs with feathers. that has been found. ● explain why the DNA sequence of chimpanzees and humans are about 96% similar. ○ dna sequences of chimps and humans are so similar because we share a recent common ancestor ● darwin and his pigeons ● artificial selection: manipulating the composition of the population to chose certain individuals with desirable traits to reproduce ● malthus: “struggle of existence”; study of people population

biologists condense darwin’s four postulates into a two part statement : evolution by natural

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

● darwin broke the process of evolution by natural selection into four simple postulates (criteria) that form a logical sequence: ○ individual organisms make up a population that vary in traits such as shape and size ○ some of these trait differences are heritable, meaning they are passed onto offspring ○ in each generation, many more offspring are produced than can possibly survive. only some individuals can survive long enough to produce offspring and some will have more than others ○ the subset of individuals that survive the best and produce the most offspring is not a random sample of the population. individuals with certain heritable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. natural selection occurs when individuals with certain characteristics produce more offspring than do individuals without those characteristics and they were selected by the natural environment ● selection occurs when (1) heritable variation leads to (2) differential reproductive success ● fitness: ability of an individual to produce surviving fertile offspring relative to that ability of any other individuals in the population ● adaptation: heritable trait that increases the fitness of an individual in a particular environment relative to individuals lacking the trait. adaptations increase fitness - the ability to produce viable, fertile offspring ● the theory of evolution by natural selection is testable ~ TB Case Study ~ if you understand these concepts, you should be able to explain

  • why the relapse in step 3 occurred
    • relapse occurred because the few bacteria that remained after drug therapy were

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

not eliminated by the weak immune system and reproduced quickly

  • whether a family member or healthcare worker who got TB from this patient at step 3 or step 4 would respond to drug therapy - no; almost all the cells present at the start of step 3 would have been resistant to the drug Due to mutation, both resistant and nonresistant strains of TB were present before administration of the drug. The researchers showed that variation in the phenotypes of the two strains from drug susceptibility to drug resistance was due to variation in their genotypes → heritable There was variation in reproductive success. Only a tiny fraction of M TB cells in the patient survived in the first round of antibiotics long enough to reproduce. When the drug was present, drug resistant cells had a higher reproductive success than normal cells → selection occurs

in only one generation, natural selection led to measurable change in the characteristics of the population. alleles that led to the development of deep beaks increased in frequency in the population

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

natural selection → individuals individuals experience differential reproductive success populations evolve allele frequencies change in populations not individuals if you understand antibiotic resistance you should be able to explain why the overprescription of antibiotics by doctors or the overuse of everyday soaps and cleaners laced with antibiotics is a health risk

  • good bacteria are killed and the bacteria that resist the antibiotics will flourish and the treatment will not work when really needed ~ Finch Beak Case Study ~ over subsequent decades, the Grants have documented continued evolution in response to continued changes in the environment list darwin’s 4 postulates and indicate which are related to heritable variation and which are related to differential reproductive success
  • traits vary (heritable variation)
  • traits heritable (heritable variation)
  • more offspring than can survive. some will live longer and have more offspring (diff rep success)
  • natural selection - selected by environment for most likely to survive and reproduce (diff rep success)

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

explain how data on beak size and shape of galapagos finch populations provide examples of heritable variation and differential reproductive success individuals do not change only population does natural selection just sorts out existing variants - it does not change them acclimatization: change in an individual’s phenotype that occurs in response to a change in natural environmental conditions phenotypic changes due to acclimatization are not passed on to offspring because no alleles have been changed mutations do not occur to solve problems. they just happen adaptations do not occur because organisms need them

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

complex traits are routinely lost or simplified over time as a result of evolution by natural selection a human is no higher than a tapeworm parasite and each is well adapted to its environment individuals with self sacrificing alleles die and do not produce offspring. but individuals with selfish cheater alleles survive and produce offspring non adaptive traits, genetic constraints, historical constraints

  • silent mutation = nonadaptive - genetic correlations occur because of pleiotropy in which a single allele affects multiple traits lack of genetic variation is also important fitness trade off: compromise between traits in terms of how traits perform in the environment selection acts on many traits at once → every adaptation is a compromise historical constraints → evolved from previously existing traits

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

25.1 Evolution of Evolutionary Thought ● plato, aristotle, bible’s book of genesis consider species as unchanging types. typological thinking ● lamarck proposed theory of evolution: species change over time through inheritance of acquired characteristics ● darwin and wallace proposed evolution by natural selection. population thinking from variation among individuals compare and contrast typological and population thinking 25.2 Pattern of Evolution: Have species changed, and are they related? ● data on age of earth, extinction, resemblance of modern to fossil, transitional features, vestigial traits, change in contemporary population over time ● data on geographic proximity of closely related species, existence of structural, developmental and genetic homologies, contemporary formation of new species support consense that species

  • common ancestor ● evidence for evolution is internally consistent you should be able to cite examples in support of the statement that species have changed through time

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

and are related by common ancestry 25.3 process of evolution ● Darwin developed four postulates that outline the process of evolution by natural selection. these postulates can be summarized by the following statement: heritable variation leads to differential reproductive success ● alleles or traits that increase the reproductive success of an individual are said to increase the individual's fitness. a trait that leads to higher fitness, relative to individuals without the trait is an adaptation you should be able to explain the difference between the biological and everyday english term fitness 25.4 evolution in action ● selection on drugs on the TB bacterium and changes in the size and shape of finch beaks in the Galapagos as a result of seed availability are well studied examples of evolution by natural selection ● both examples demonstrate that evolution can be observed and measured. evolution by natural selection has been confirmed by a wide variety of studies and has long been considered to be the central organizing principle of biology you should be able to predict how changes in Mycobacterium TB populations would be explained under special creation and under evolution by inheritance of acquired characteristics 25.5 common misconceptions about natural selection and adaptation ● natural selection acts on individuals but evolutionary change acts on population. non- heritable change occurs are not adaptations and do not result in evolution

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

● evolution is not goal directed and does not lead to perfection. there is no such thing as a higher or lower organism ● organisms do not act for the good of the species ● not all traits are adaptive and even adaptive tive traits are limited by genetic and historical constraints you should be able to discuss how adaptations such as the large brains of homo sapiens and the ability of falcons to fly very fast are constrained Biological fitness can be estimated by counting the number of healthy fertile offspring produced by different individuals in a population. vestigial traits are NOT considered so bc they existed long ago. an adaptation is a trait that improves the fitness of its bearer, compared with individuals without the trait The presence of extinct forms and transitional features in the fossil record support the pattern component of the theory of evolution by natural selection because it supports the hypothesis that

SOLUTIONS 2023 UPDATE

species change over time traits that are derived from a common ancestor like the bones of human arms and bird wings are said to be homologous according to the data presented in the chapter, populations - not individuals change when natural selection occurs “mutation proposes and selection disposes” beneficial mutations have more offspring and the frequency increases artificial selection is goal directed In some environments, big and strong lowers fitness CHAPTER 26 natural selection: increased frequency of certain alleles that contribute to reproductive success in particular environment. only one of four that leads to adaptation genetic drift: change randomly allele frequencies ; drift may cause alleles that decrease fitness to increase in frequency gene flow: may change allele frequencies; individuals leave population and join another and breed, introduce new alleles in new population, remove some alleles in old population