BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY EXAM 1 QUESTIONS WITH 100% CORRECTLY SOLVED ANSWERS., Exams of Biological Psychology

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BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

EXAM 1 QUESTIONS WITH 100%

CORRECTLY SOLVED ANSWERS.

Biological Psychology - Correct Answer-Behavioral neuroscience. The study of the biological base of psychological processes and behavior Neuroscience - Correct Answer-The study of the nervous system Neuron - Correct Answer-Nerve cell, basic unit of the nervous system. Composed of cell body, receptive extensions (dendrites), and a transmitting extension (axon) Somatic Intervention - Correct Answer-An approach to finding relations between body variables and behavior variables that involves manipulating body structure or function and looking for resultant changes in behavior Independent Variable - Correct Answer-The behavior that is manipulated Dependent Variable - Correct Answer-The factor that is measured, dependent on independent variable Behavioral Intervention - Correct Answer-An approach to finding relations between body variables and behavioral variables that involves intervening in the behavior of an organism and looking for resultant changes in body structure or functions Correlation - Correct Answer-The covariation of two measures Neuroplasticity - Correct Answer-The ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment Reductionism - Correct Answer-The scientific process of breaking a system down into increasingly smaller parts in order to understand it.

Dualism - Correct Answer-Notion promoted by Rene Descartes that the mind is subject to only spiritual interactions while the body is subject to only material interactions Phrenology - Correct Answer-The belief that bumps on the skull reflect enlargements of brain regions responsible for certain behavioral faculties Neuron Doctrine - Correct Answer-The hypothesis that the brain is composed of separate cells that are distinct structurally, metabolically, and functionally. Synapses between neurons. Ramon y Cajal's theory led to this Synapse - Correct Answer-The gap between neurons, where information is passed from one to the other Glial Cells - Correct Answer-Neuroglia, no neuronal brain cells that provide structural, nutritional, and other types of support to the brain. Three types Astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes Mitochondria - Correct Answer-Cellular organelle that provides energy for the cells processes Cell Nucleus - Correct Answer-The center of the cell that contains the chromosomes Ribosomes - Correct Answer-Structures in the cell body where genetic information is translated to produce proteins Endoplasmic reticulum - Correct Answer-network of tubes that transports molecules Dendrite - Correct Answer-Receptive surface of neuron Input zone - Correct Answer-Part of the neuron the receives information, usually corresponds with dendrites Cell Body, Soma - Correct Answer-Region of neuron that is the nucleus

Integration Zone - Correct Answer-Part of the Neuron that initiates electrical cell activity, usually corresponds to axon hillock. Determines whether or not an AP is fired Axon - Correct Answer-A single extension from the nerve cell that carries nerve impulses from the cell body to other neurons Conduction Zone - Correct Answer-The part of the neuron over which the nerve's electrical signal may be actively propagated, usually corresponds to cell's axon Axon Terminal - Correct Answer-The end of an axon, forms a synapse with another neuron or another target cell Output Zone - Correct Answer-The part of a neuron, usually corresponding with the axon terminals, at which the cell sends information to another cell Multipolar Neuron - Correct Answer-Has many dendrites and a single axon Bipolar Neuron - Correct Answer-Has a single dendrite at one end and a single axon at the other end Unipolar Neuron - Correct Answer-Has single branch that leaves the cell body and then extends in two directions, one end is the receptive pole, the other is the output zone Motoneuron - Correct Answer-Nerve cell that transmits motor messages stimulating a muscle or gland Sensory Neuron - Correct Answer-Directly affected by changes in the environment, such as a light, odor, or touch Interneuron - Correct Answer-Neither a sensory or motor neuron, receives input and sends it to other neurons. Modulates activity of principle neurons Astrocyte - Correct Answer-Star shaped glial cell with numerous processes (extensions) that run in all directions Microglial Cells - Correct Answer-Extremely small glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells

Myelin - Correct Answer-The fatty insulation around as axon, formed by glial cells, improves the speed of conduction of neural cells Myelination - Correct Answer-The process of myelin formation Node of Ranvier - Correct Answer-Gaps between the successive segments of the myelin sheath where the axon membrane is exposed Multiple Sclerosis - Correct Answer-Literally means "many scars" disorder characterized by the widespread degradation of myelin Oligodendrocyte - Correct Answer-A type of glial cell that forms myelin in the CNS Schwann Cell - Correct Answer-The glial cell forms myelin in the PNS Edema - Correct Answer-The swelling of tissue, especially in the brain, response to injury Arborization - Correct Answer-The elaborate branching of the dendrites of some neurons Presynaptic - Correct Answer-Referring to the region of the synapse that releases the NT Postsynaptic - Correct Answer-Referring to the region of a synapse that receives and responds to NT Presynaptic Membrane - Correct Answer-The specialized membrane of the axon terminal of the neuron that transmits information by releasing NT Postsynaptic Membrane - Correct Answer-The specialized membrane on the surface of a cell that receives information by responding to NT from a presynaptic neuron Synaptic Cleft - Correct Answer-The space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic elements

Synaptic Vesicle - Correct Answer-A small spherical structure that contains molecules of NT Neurotransmitter - Correct Answer-The chemical released from the presynaptic axon terminal that serves as the basis of communication between neurons Receptor - Correct Answer-A protein that captures and reacts to molecules of a NT or hormone Neural Plasticity - Correct Answer-The ability of the nervous system the change in response to experience or the environment Axon Hillock - Correct Answer-A cone shaped area from which the axon originates out of the cell body. Integration zone of neuron Axon Collateral - Correct Answer-A branch of an axon from a single neuron Innervate - Correct Answer-To provide neural input Axonal Transport - Correct Answer-The transportation of materials from the neuronal cell body to distant regions in the dendrites and axons, and from the axon terminals back to the cell body. Gross Neuroanatomy - Correct Answer-Anatomical features of the nervous system that are apparent to the naked eye. Cauda Equina - Correct Answer-The caudal most spinal nerves, which extend beyond the spinal cord proper to exit the spinal column Peripheral Nervous System - Correct Answer-The portion of the nervous system that includes all the nerves and neurons outside the brain and spinal cord CNS - Correct Answer-Portion of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord Nerve - Correct Answer-A collection of axons bundled together outside the CNS

Cranial Nerve - Correct Answer-Nerve connected directly to the brain Spinal Nerve - Correct Answer-A nerve that emerges from the spinal cord Autonomic Nervous System - Correct Answer-The part of the PNS that supplies neural connections to the glands and to smooth muscles of internal organs. Autonomic neurons innervate neurons in ganglia, which in turn innervate target organs Dorsal Root - Correct Answer-The branch of a spinal nerve entering the dorsal horn of the spinal cord that carries sensory information from the PNS to the spinal cord Ventral Root - Correct Answer-The branch of spinal nerve arising from the ventral horn of the spinal cord that carries motor messages from the spinal cord to the PNS Cervical - Correct Answer-Referring to the topmost 8 segments of the spinal cord, in the neck region Thoracic - Correct Answer-Referring to the 12 spinal segments below the cervical portion of the spinal cord, corresponding to the chest Lumbar - Correct Answer-The % spinal segments that make up the upper part of the lower back Sacral - Correct Answer-% spinal segments that make up the lower part of the lower back Coccygeal - Correct Answer-Lowest spinal vertebra (tailbone) Autonomic Ganglia - Correct Answer-Collections of nerve cell bodies, belonging to the autonomic division of the PNS that are found in various locations and innervate the major organs Preganglionic - Correct Answer-Neurons in the ANS the run from the CNS to the autonomic ganglia

Postganglionic - Correct Answer-Referring to neurons in the autonomic nervous system that run from the autonomic ganglia to various targets in the body Sympathetic Nervous System - Correct Answer-Component of the ANS that arises from the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord. Action, dilates pupils, increases heart rate, activates salivary glands Sympathetic Chain - Correct Answer-Chain of ganglia that runs along each side of the spinal column, part of the SNS Parasympathetic Nervous System - Correct Answer-Component of ANS that arises from both cranial nerves and the sacral spinal cord. Rest, relaxation digestion, constricts pupils, slows heart rate, inhibits salivary glands Norepinephrine - Correct Answer-NT produced and released by sympathetic post gangliotic neurons to accelerate organ activity Also produced in the brain stem and found in projections throughout the brain Acetylcholine - Correct Answer-NT produced and released by parasympathetic post gangliotic neurons by motoneurons and by neurons throughout the brain Enteric Nervous System - Correct Answer-An extensive meshlike system of neurons the governs the functioning of the gut Cerebral Hemispheres - Correct Answer-The right and left halves of the forebrain Gyrus - Correct Answer-A rigid raised portion of a convoluted brain surface Suclus - Correct Answer-A furrow of a convoluted brain Frontal Lobe - Correct Answer-The most anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, planning problem solving Parietal Lobe - Correct Answer-Large regions of cortex lying between the frontal and occipital lobes of each cerebral hemisphere. Spacial information, senses

Temporal Lobes - Correct Answer-Large lateral cortical regions of each cerebral hemisphere, continuous with the parietal lobes posteriorly, and separated from the frontal lobe by the Sylvian fissure. Audio, memory/learning Occipital Lobes - Correct Answer-Large regions of the cortex covering much of the posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere. Audio Sylvian Fissure - Correct Answer-A deep fissure that demarcates the temporal lobe Central Suclus - Correct Answer-A fissure divides the frontal and parietal lobe Cerebral Cortex - Correct Answer-Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres, consists largely of cell bodies and their branches. Layers are not random, contain interneurons Post Central gyrus - Correct Answer-The strip of frontal cortex, just in front of the central suclus, that is crucial for motor control Precentral gyrus - Correct Answer-The strip of frontal cortex, just in front of the central suclus, that is crucial for motor control Corpus Collosum - Correct Answer-The main band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres White Matter - Correct Answer-Shiny layer underneath the cortex that consists largely of axons with white myelin sheaths Gray Matter - Correct Answer-Areas of the brain that are dominated by cell bodies devoid of myelin Telencephalon - Correct Answer-The frontal subdivision of the forebrain that includes the cerebral hemispheres when fully developed Diencephalon - Correct Answer-The posterior part of the forebrain including the thalamus and hypothalamus Metencephalon - Correct Answer-a subdivision of the hindbrain that includes the cerebellum and the pons

Cerebellum - Correct Answer-A structure located at the back of the brain, dorsal to the pons, that is involved with central regulation of movement Pons - Correct Answer-A portion of the metencephalon part of the brain stem connecting midbrain to medulla Myelenencephelon or Medulla - Correct Answer-The posterior part of the hindbrain, continuous with the spinal cord Brain stem - Correct Answer-Region of the brain that consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla Nucleus - Correct Answer-Here, a collection of neuronal cell bodies within the central nervous system Tract - Correct Answer-A bundle of neurons found within the CNS Basal Ganglia - Correct Answer-A group of forebrain nuclei including caudate nucleus, globes pallid us, and putamen, found deep within the cerebral hemispheres. Motor control, Parkinson's, Huntington's. Caudate Nucleus - Correct Answer-One of the Basal Ganglia, has a long extension or tail Putamen - Correct Answer-One of the basal ganglia Globus Pallidus - Correct Answer-one of the basal ganglia Substantia Nigra - Correct Answer-Brainstem structure in humans related to the basal ganglia Limbic system - Correct Answer-A loosely define, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network Amygdala - Correct Answer-A group of nuclei in the medial anterior part of the temporal lobe hippocampus - Correct Answer-a medial temporal lobe structure that is important for learning and memory

Fornix - Correct Answer-A fiber tract that extends from the hippocampus to the mammillary body Cingulate gyrus - Correct Answer-A cortical portion of the limbic system found in the frontal and parietal midline Olfactory bulb - Correct Answer-An anterior portion of the brain that ermines in the upper nasal passages and through small openings in the skull, provides receptors for smell Mammillary body - Correct Answer-One of a pair of nuclei at the base of the brain Thalamus - Correct Answer-The brain regions that surround the third ventricle Hypothalamus - Correct Answer-Part of the diencephalon lying ventral to the thalamus Superior Colliculi - Correct Answer-Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive visual information and are involved in direction of visual gaze and visual attention to intended stimuli Inferior Colliculi - Correct Answer-Paired grap matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive auditory information Tectum - Correct Answer-Dorsal portion of the midbrain including the inferior and superior colliculi Red Nucleus - Correct Answer-A brain stem structure related to motor control Reticular Formation - Correct Answer-An extensive region of the brainstem involved in arousal (waking) Purkinje Cell - Correct Answer-A type of large nerve cell in the cerebellar cortex Granule cell - Correct Answer-small nerve cell

parallel fiber - Correct Answer-one of the axons of the granule cells that form the outer most layer of the cerebral cortex neocortex - Correct Answer-cerebral cortex that is made up of six distinct layers allocortex - Correct Answer-brain tissue with three layers or unaltered organization pyramidal cell - Correct Answer-type of large nerve cell that has a roughly pyramidal shaped cell body found in the cerebral cortex apical dendrite - Correct Answer-the dendrite that extends from a pyramidal cell to the outer most surface of the cortex basal dendrite - Correct Answer-one of several dendrites on a pyramidal cell that extend horizontally from the cell body Cortical column - Correct Answer-one of the vertical columns that constitute basic organization of the neocortex meninges - Correct Answer-three protective sheets of tissue (dura mater, pia mater, arachnoid) that surround the brain and spinal cord. dura mater - Correct Answer-outer most of the three meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord pia mater - Correct Answer-innermost of the meninges arachnoid - Correct Answer-thin covering of the brain that lies between the dura and pia mater, contains cerebral spinal fluid cerebrospinal fluid - Correct Answer-fluid that fills the cerebral ventricles meningitis - Correct Answer-acute inflammation of the meninges, caused by a viral or bacterial infection ventricular system - Correct Answer-system of fluid filled cavities inside the brain

lateral ventricle - Correct Answer-complexly shaped lateral portion of the ventricular system within each hemisphere choroid plexus - Correct Answer-highly vascular portion of the lining of the ventricles that secretes cerebral spinal fluid third ventricle - Correct Answer-the midline ventricle that conducts cerebrospinal fluid from the third ventricle and releases it to surround the brain and spinal cord fourth ventricle - Correct Answer-the passageway within the pons that receives cerebrospinal fluid from the third ventricle and releases it to surround the brain and spinal cord carotid arteries - Correct Answer-the major arteries that ascend the left and right sides of the neck to supply blood to the anterior and middle cerebral arteries anterior cerebral arteries - Correct Answer-two large arteries arising from carotids that provide blood to the anterior poles and medial surfaces to the cerebral hemispheres middle cerebral arteries - Correct Answer-two large arteries arising from the carotids that provide blood to most of the lateral surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres posterior cerebral arteries - Correct Answer-two large arteries arising from the basilar artery that provide blood to posterior aspects of cerebral hemispheres cerebellum and brain stem vertebral arteries - Correct Answer-arteries that ascend the vertebrae, enter the base of the skull, and join together to form the basilar artery basilar artery - Correct Answer-artery formed by the fusion of the vertebral arteries, that supplies blood to the brainstem and to the posterior cerebral arteries circle of willis - Correct Answer-structure at the base of the brain that is formed by the joining of carotid and basilar arteries

stroke - Correct Answer-damage to a region of brain tissue that results from blockage or rupture of vessels that supply blood to that region blood-brain barrier - Correct Answer-the mechanisms that make the movement of substances from blood vessels into braincells more difficult than exchanges in other body organs, thus affording the brain greater protection from exposure to some substances found in the blood angiography - Correct Answer-a brain imaging technique in which specialized X-ray image of the head is taken shortly after cerebral blood vessels have been filled with a radiopaque dye by means of catheter CT - Correct Answer-noninvasive technique for examine brain structure in humans through computer analysis of X-ray absorption at several positions around the head. Good image resolution - good for visualizing problems or damage, such as from strokes MRI - Correct Answer-noninvasive technique that uses magnetic energy to generate images that reveal some structural details in the living brain. Protons produce radio waves that differ depending on density of tissue Great imaging resolution (better than CT) and doesn't use X-rays PET - Correct Answer-Shows ACTIVITY in the brain. technique of observing the brain through combining tomography with injections of radioactive substances used by the brain fMRI - Correct Answer-magnetic resonance imaging that detects changes in blood flow (shows active regions). Get lower image resolution than regular MRI due to rapid cycling BUT you can see changes in brain activity with good temporal resolution (2- second resolution) optical imaging - Correct Answer-method for visualizing brain activity in which near in fared light is passed through the scalp and skull Advantages - relatively cheap, decent image resolution (but only of cortex) Good temporal resolution TMS - Correct Answer-localized non invasive stimulation of cortical neurons through the application of strong magnetic fields. for stimulating or altering activity

Provides focal magnetic currents at specific region of cortex - may stimulate or actually disrupt activity MEG - Correct Answer-a passive and noninvasive functional brain imaging technique that measures the tiny magnetic fields produced by active neurons in order to identify regions of the brain that are active during a particular task. VERY good temporal resolution Good spatial resolution when combined with MRI Gene - Correct Answer-A length of DNA that encode the information for constructing a particular protein protein - Correct Answer-string of amino acids, basic building material of organisms enzyme - Correct Answer-complicated protein whose action increases the probability of a specific chemical reaction DNA - Correct Answer-string of nucleic acids found in the chromosomes of cells,n codes for hereditary information nucleotide - Correct Answer-Portion of DNA or RNA that is composed of a single base and adjoins the sugar phosphate unit of the strand (DNA GCTA, RNA ACGU Hybridization - Correct Answer-The process by which a string of nucleotides becomes linked to a string of complementary nucleotides Chromosome - Correct Answer-complex of condensed DNA, associated with protein molecules, found in the nucleus RNA - Correct Answer-nucleic acid that implements information found in DNA transcription - Correct Answer-the process by which mRNA forms bases complementary with that of DNA. The resulting message, called a transcript, is then used to translate the DNA code into protein molecules. DNA-> RNA mRNA - Correct Answer-strand of RNA that carries the code of a section of a DNA strand to the cytoplasm

ribosomes - Correct Answer-structures in the cell body where genetic information is translated to produce proteins translation - Correct Answer-the process by which amino acids are linked together (directed by mRNA molecule) to form a protein. RNA-> Proteins codon - Correct Answer-set of three nucleotides that encodes one particular amino acid peptide - Correct Answer-short string of amino acids, longer strands are called proteins gel electrophoresis - Correct Answer-a method of separating molecules of different size or electrical charge by forcing them to flow through gel blotting - Correct Answer-transferring DNA RNA or protein fragments to nitrocellulose following separation via gel electrophoresis. The blotted substance can then be labeled Southern blot - Correct Answer-method of detecting a particular DNA sequence in the genome of an organism by separating the DNA with gel electrophoresis, blotting the separated DNAs onto nitrocellulose, and then using a nucleotide probe to hybridize with and highlight the gene of interest. WHETHER gene is present Northern blot - Correct Answer-a method of detecting a particular RNA transcript in a tissue or organ, by separating the RNA via gel electrophoresis, blotting the separated RNAs onto nitrocellulose, and then using a nucleotide probe to hybridize with and highlight the transcript of interest. WHETHER and WHERE gene is present in situ hybridization - Correct Answer-a method for detecting particular RNA transcripts within specific cells sections by providing a nucleotide probe that is complimentary to and will hybridize with the transcript of interest. WHERE Western blot - Correct Answer-a method of detecting a particular protein molecule in a tissue or organ by separating proteins from theta source with gel electrophoresis, blotting the separated proteins onto nitrocellulose, and then using an antibody that binds and highlights the protein of interest. HOW MUCH

antibody - Correct Answer-large protein that recognizes and permanently binds to particular shapes, normally as part of the immune system on foreign particles immunocytochemistry - Correct Answer-a method for detecting a particular protein in tissues in which an antibody recognizes and binds to the protein and then chemical methods are used to leave a visible reaction product around each antibody WHERE Golgi stain - Correct Answer-fluorescent dye injection fills entire cell Nissil stain - Correct Answer-stain that outlines cell bodies Audioradiography - Correct Answer-Radioactive molecule - often a ligand, which binds to something in brain Inject animal with radioactive molecule or expose tissue section to radioactive molecule Place brain section against kind of film - radioactivity exposes the film Useful for localization as well as relative density of whatever ligand binds to Tracing pathways - Correct Answer-Tracing pathways - use anterograde or retrograde tracers or labels -- cells in one structure send their axons to other structures -- enables you to determine how one structure is connected to another Anterograde Tracers - Correct Answer-taken up by cell bodies and transported to axon terminals

• So, you can see WHERE cells send their afferents Retrograde Tracers - Correct Answer-taken up by axon terminals and transported BACK to cell bodies
• So, you can see WHERE the efferents to a structure come from Terms for brain sections - Correct Answer-horizontal: cuts across horizon Sagittal: Cuts between the eyes Coronal: like a crown Directional Terms - Correct Answer-(think of person on all fours) anterior vs posterior (front back)

medial vs lateral (middle vs edges) dorsal vs ventral (top bottom) Ganglion vs nucleus - Correct Answer-group of nerves in PNS, group of nerves in CNS Nerves vs Tracts - Correct Answer-axons in PNS, axons in CNS Gray matter vs white matter - Correct Answer-unmyelinated, myelinated afferent vs efferent - Correct Answer-axons coming to structure, axons leaving structure contralateral vs ipsilateral - Correct Answer-opposite side of body, same side 12 Cranial Nerves - Correct Answer-I Olfactory: smell SENSORY II Optic: vision SENSORY III Oculomotor: eyelid and eyeball movement MOTOR IV Trochlear: eye muscles MOTOR V Trigeminal: face, sinuses, teeth SENSORY VI Abducens:eye muscles MOTOR VII Facial: controls most facial expressions secretion of tears & saliva SENSORY taste VIII Vestibulocochlear: hearing, equilibrium sensation SENSORY IX Glossopharyngeal: taste, senses carotid blood pressure SENSORY X Vagus: information from internal organs SENSORY XI Spinal Accessory: controls neck muscles MOTOR XII Hypoglossal: controls tongue movements MOTOR Know figure 2.14 - Correct Answer-divisions of the nervous system Know figure 2.10 - Correct Answer-the spinal curves and spinal nerves know figure 2.12 - Correct Answer-lobes and gyruses Tegmentum - Correct Answer-covering ventral to tectum, motor control and reward, beginning of reticular formation

Don't need to memorize - Correct Answer-2.15, basal ganglia or limbic system diagrams Lipids are - Correct Answer-hydrophobic, repel water Polar molecules and ions are - Correct Answer-hydrophilic, water loving Cell membrane is a - Correct Answer-lipid bilayer, allows certain uncharged chemicals to flow through Membrane - Correct Answer-Composed of two layers of fat molecules; this membrane allows some small uncharged chemicals to flow both into and out of the cell. Protein channels allow a few charged ions to cross the membrane, but most chemicals are unable to cross. Voltage - Correct Answer-measure of stored potential current - Correct Answer-measurement of rate or flow of energy Voltage between inside and outside of cell must be - Correct Answer-a separation of ions, with the inside being more negative relative to the outside Resting membrane potential - Correct Answer-difference in voltage during an inactive period Diffusion - Correct Answer-the spontaneous spread of molecules of one substance among molecules of another substance until a uniform concentration is achieved Contributors to resting membrane potential - Correct Answer-1) Selective membrane permeability (ion channels, negative proteins)

2. Diffusion (equilibrium potential)
3. Electrostatic Forces (equilibrium potential)
4. Sodium-potassium pump (3 sodium ions out, 2 potassium in)

equilibrium potential - Correct Answer-here the movement of ions across a cell membrane is balanced, as the electrostatic pressure pulling ions in one direction is offset by the diffusion force pushing them in the opposite direction (picture in notes) Potassium channels - Correct Answer-open and are selectively permeable. Proteins cannot - Correct Answer-easily leave the cell Sodium Potassium Pumps - Correct Answer-Na-K pump - requires a great deal of energy and is responsible for maintaining cell's membrane potential. Pushes sodium ions out and potassium ions in Nernst equation - Correct Answer-calculates the voltage (potential) to reach equilibrium across membrane "Polarized neuron" called this because - Correct Answer-there is a potential across the cell membrane, it has a negative potential (-60 mV) Hyper polarize - Correct Answer-more negative (e.g. -70 mV) Depolarize - Correct Answer-more positive (or less negative) - e.g. -50 mV Artificially hyperpolarizing a neuron - Correct Answer-hyperpolarizing current was a GRADED response - i.e. larger current injections produced larger changes in responses Also, it decayed over time/distance - indicating that it was a PASSIVE spread of potential nothing was regenerating it, "local" potentials. Same thing for depolarizing, but called "graded responses" Action potentials - Correct Answer-occur when membrane reaches threshold, -40mv, caused by depolarization of the axon or nerve impulses. Flowing of ions across a membrane At resting potential K+ channels are - Correct Answer-open, K+ is at equilibrium A depolarizing force brings membrane potential - Correct Answer-closer to threshold and voltage gated Na+ channels open at threshold

At threshold - Correct Answer-Na+ rushes into the cell making it more positive relative to the outside Na+ rushing into the cell triggers - Correct Answer-inactivation of Na+ channels and K+ channels to open, K+ rushes out of the cell K+ rushing out of the cell leads to - Correct Answer-after potential, and eventually resting potential Relative vs Absolute refractory period - Correct Answer-during relative, another AP can be triggered with a greater stimulus, during absolute no AP can be fired All or none property of APs - Correct Answer-APs fire or they don't, no half AP AP's do not - Correct Answer-decay, they need to regenerate, Na+ channels are spread along the axon, keep opening as APs spread across axon as the result of inactivation of Na+ channels` - Correct Answer-APs spread in one direction towards the axon terminal Two factors that affect conduction velocity - Correct Answer-1) diameter of axon (larger diameter faster)

2. myelination Why does myelin make conduction of AP faster? - Correct Answer-insulates axon and reduces decay of depolarization in cell Electrical synapse - Correct Answer-how neurons communicate with one another, AP can jump between the synapse without being translated into a chemical message How else do neurons communicate? - Correct Answer-synapses where NT are released into the post synaptic cell. NTs can briefly alter the resting potential of the postsynaptic cell, creating postsynaptic, graded potentials Graded potentials - Correct Answer-spread passively, neuron is not regenerating potential, decay over time and distance

Local potentials - Correct Answer-the change in the membrane potential is local to the synapse and can only spread passively from there Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): - Correct Answer-: a synaptic potential that increases the chance that a future action potential will occur in a postsynaptic neuron. Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP): - Correct Answer-: a synaptic potential that decreases the chance that a future action potential will occur in a postsynaptic neuron. What determines excitation or inhibition - Correct Answer-NT and its receptor What determines whether a cell fires - Correct Answer-whether or not cell reaches threshold, determined through summation of inhibitory and excitatory inputs spacial v temporal summation - Correct Answer-summation in axon hillock of post synaptic potentials across the cell body, summation of potentials that reach the axon hillock at different times, closer in time, more complete the summation How does AP produce NT release and post synaptic effect - Correct Answer-1. AP propagated over presynaptic membrane

2. depolarization leads to influx of Ca+ ions
3. Ca+ causes vesicles to fuse with presynaptic membrane and release NT into the synaptic cleft
4. Binding of transmitter to postsynaptic receptor opens channels permitting ion flow, initiating excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potential
5. ESPS and ISPS travel across dendrites and cell body to axon hillock reputake - Correct Answer-process by which released synaptic transmitter molecules are taken up and reused by presynaptic neuron, thereby stopping synaptic activity degradation - Correct Answer-chemical breakdown of NT by an enzyme into inactive metabolites pinocytosis - Correct Answer-process by which NT is repackaged into synaptic vesicles, (bags of cereal)

Neurons can often be identified by their - Correct Answer-neurotransmitter ESPSs are usually due to the opening of - Correct Answer-ligand gated Na+ channels ISPSs are usually due to the opening of - Correct Answer-ligand gated Cl- channels ligand - Correct Answer-substance that binds to receptor molecules Ionotropic receptors - Correct Answer-fast receptors that are ion channels, typically responsible for ESPSs and ISPSs Metabotropic receptors - Correct Answer-activate G protein - hence, they are also called G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) - slower receptors GPCRs can - Correct Answer-open channels as well - more commonly, they activated intracellular signaling mechanisms through second messengers. The portion inside the neuron activates a G-protein -one that is coupled to guanosine triphosphate (GTP), an energy storing molecule. G-protein increases the concentration of a "second-messenger" The second messenger communicates to areas within the cell. May open or close ion channels, alter production of activating proteins, or activate chromosomes. NT is like a master key that - Correct Answer-unlocks all subtypes of receptors, so we identify subtypes with ligands endogenous ligand - Correct Answer-any substance produced within the body that selectively binds to the receptor under study exogenous ligand - Correct Answer-any substance produced outside the body that selectively binds to the receptor under study agonist - Correct Answer-increases activation of receptors antagonist - Correct Answer-blocks activation of receptors

Different types of synaptic connections - Correct Answer-axo-dendridic, axo- somatic, axo-axonic, dendo-dendritic Knee jerk chart - Correct Answer-See it, puts everything together convergence - Correct Answer-phenomena of neural connections where many cells send signals to a single cell divergence - Correct Answer-one cell sends signals to many cells EEG - Correct Answer-Put electrodes on scalp and pick up the electrical activity of the brain (believed to be postsynaptic potentials) Very good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution - i.e. can't identify exactly where the potentials are originating Measure brain potentials on a larger level ERP - Correct Answer-are simply EEGs that have been time-locked to a particular stimulus e.g. give a tone and look at the EEG response in the time during and immediately after the tone Usually, average ERPs to eliminate "noise" and find the response of interest Seizures - Correct Answer-synchronization of widespread activity in neurons across - often spread across entire brain Use EEG to observe seizure activity NT also have - Correct Answer-co-transmitters, mostly neuropeptides Amino Acid NTs - Correct Answer-GABA-primary fast inhibitory NT Glutamate-primary fast excitatory NT Monoamine NTs - Correct Answer-Dopamine Serotonine Norepenephrine Epinephrine Acetylcholine - Correct Answer-Nicotinic, usually ionotropic and excitatory. In PNS on skeletal muscles Muscarinic, GCPRs excitatory or inhibitory. postganglionic cells of autonomic system (parasympathetic)

In CNS AcH impt for learning and memory Dopamine - Correct Answer-Five subtype, all GPCRs excitatory and inhibitory -the excitatory stimulate the production of cyclic AMP( type of second messenger -the inhibitory inhibit cAMPS production Two major classes of DA neurons - Correct Answer-VTA DA neurons- - involved in reward, emotion, "pleasure", reinforcement, and addiction Substantia nigra (SN) DA neurons - innervate the dorsal striatum (i.e. the caudate and putamen) - motor control Remember: Destruction of SN dopamine neurons Parkinson's Norepinephrine - Correct Answer-Four subtypes - a1, a2, b1, b2 - GPCRs Involved in emotional arousal, mood, sexual behavior, and learning and memory a1 - activates phospholipase C b1, b2 - stimulatory to cAMP system a2 - inhibitory to cAMP system - frequently an autoreceptor or presynaptic receptor Serotonine - Correct Answer-19 subtypes - GPCRs (except one) Involved in mood, anxiety, sleep, and variety of other functions One of the most complex NT systems The receptor determines whether or not the NT is - Correct Answer- excitatory or inhibitory GABA - Correct Answer-Frequently, GABAergic neurons are interneurons in structures Exceptions - in striatum (includes the caudate-putamen and the nucleus accumbens), GABA cells are also the principal projection neurons GABAA - receptor - ionotropic - chloride channel (GABAC, too) GABAB - receptor - metabotropic - slow IPSP Glutamate - Correct Answer-Principal projection neurons of most forebrain structures use glutamate - e.g. cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, amygdala In cortex, pyramidal neurons

Several receptors - 3 ionotropic (called iGluRs), several metabotropic (called mGluRs) iGluRs - AMPA, kainate, NMDA - AMPA/kainate hard to distinguish and extremely similar AMPA receptor - Correct Answer-sodium channel, when opened produce EPSP NMDA receptor - Correct Answer-iGluR - but a bit different both voltage- and ligand-gated Magnesium block requires depolarization to open Influx of calcium - critically affects internal signaling mechanisms Very important in synaptic plasticity and learning and memory Glutamate vs GABA - Correct Answer-Glutamatergic synapses - frequently found on dendritic spine heads In contrast, GABA synapses - frequently found on dendritic shaft of spine, proximal regions of dendrites, cell bodies, and even close to axon hillock Glutamatergic synapses - asymmetric GABAergic synapses - symmetric Peptides - Correct Answer-usually co-transmitters Gases - Correct Answer-NO - often retrograde - simply diffuses across membranes Competitive vs Noncompetitive ligands - Correct Answer-substance that directly competes with the endogenous ligand for the same binding site on a receptor molecule, a drug that affects a transmitter receptor while binding at a site other than that bound by the endogenous ligand Metabolic tolerance - Correct Answer-repeated use of a drug causes metabolic machinery of the body to become more efficient at clearing the drug functional tolerance - Correct Answer-decreased response to drug after repeated use, caused by up and down regulation of receptors sensitization - Correct Answer-process by which body shows enhanced response to a given drug after repeated doses