BSC2089C Human Anatomy & Physiology COMPLETED EXAM w/ RATIONALES 2024, Exams of Animal Anatomy and Physiology

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BSC208 9 C

Human Anatomy &

Physiology

COMPLETED EXAM w/

RATIONALES

1. What are the three types of muscle tissue and where are they found in the body? Answer: The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac and smooth. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and is responsible for voluntary movements. Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and pumps blood throughout the body. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs and vessels and helps regulate involuntary functions such as digestion, blood pressure and breathing.
2. What are the functions of the integumentary system? Answer: The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, glands and receptors. It has several functions, such as protecting the body from external injury, infection and dehydration, regulating body temperature and fluid balance, synthesizing vitamin D, eliminating waste products through sweat and sebum, and providing sensory information.

3. What are the four types of bones and give an example of each? Answer: The four types of bones are long, short, flat and irregular. Long bones are longer than they are wide and have a shaft and two ends, such as the femur and humerus. Short bones are roughly cube-shaped and provide stability and support, such as the carpals and tarsals. Flat bones are thin and curved and protect vital organs, such as the ribs and skull. Irregular bones have complex shapes that do not fit into the other categories, such as the vertebrae and pelvis.
4. What are the three layers of the skin and what are their main characteristics? Answer: The three layers of the skin are the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis is the outermost layer that consists of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. It contains melanocytes that produce melanin, which gives skin its color and protects it from UV radiation. The dermis is the middle layer that consists of dense irregular connective tissue. It contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands and other structures that support the skin's function. The hypodermis is the innermost layer that consists of loose connective tissue and adipose tissue. It anchors the skin to

the underlying muscles and bones and provides insulation and cushioning.

5. What are the two types of joints and how do they differ in terms of structure and movement? Answer: The two types of joints are fibrous and synovial. Fibrous joints are held together by fibrous connective tissue and have little or no movement, such as sutures in the skull. Synovial joints are enclosed by a joint capsule that contains synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint. They have a high degree of movement and can be classified into six types based on their shape: hinge, pivot, ball-and-socket, saddle, condyloid and gliding.
6. What are the three types of muscle contraction and what are their effects on muscle length and tension? Answer: The three types of muscle contraction are isotonic, isometric and isokinetic. Isotonic contraction occurs when a muscle changes its length while maintaining a constant tension, such as lifting a weight or walking. Isometric contraction occurs when a muscle does not change its length but increases its tension, such as holding a posture

or pushing against a wall. Isokinetic contraction occurs when a muscle changes its length at a constant speed while varying its tension, such as using a machine that controls the resistance.

7. What are some common disorders or diseases that affect the skeletal system? Answer: Some common disorders or diseases that affect the skeletal system are osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, fractures, scoliosis, kyphosis and lordosis. Osteoporosis is a condition where bone density decreases and becomes more prone to fracture. Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease where cartilage wears away and causes pain and stiffness. Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease where inflammation damages the synovial membrane and causes joint deformity. Fractures are breaks or cracks in bones due to trauma or stress. Scoliosis is an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine. Kyphosis is an excessive posterior curvature of the thoracic spine. Lordosis is an excessive anterior curvature of the lumbar spine.

8. What are some common disorders or diseases that affect the muscular system? Answer: Some common disorders or diseases that affect the muscular system are muscular dystrophy, myasthenia gravis, tetanus, botulism, poliomyelitis and fibromyalgia. Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic diseases that cause progressive weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscles. Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease that impairs the communication between nerves and muscles and causes muscle fatigue and weakness. Tetanus is a bacterial infection that causes severe muscle spasms and rigidity. Botulism is a bacterial infection that blocks the release of acetylcholine and causes muscle paralysis. Poliomyelitis is a viral infection that destroys motor neurons and causes muscle atrophy and paralysis. Fibromyalgia is a chronic condition that causes widespread pain, stiffness and tenderness of muscles and soft tissues.
9. What are some common disorders or diseases that affect the integumentary system? Answer: Some common disorders or diseases that affect the integumentary system are acne, eczema, psoriasis, dermatitis, skin cancer, burns, wounds, infections and allergies. Acne is a condition where sebaceous glands

become clogged and inflamed and produce pimples. Eczema is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder that causes dry, itchy and scaly patches. Psoriasis is a chronic autoimmune skin disorder that causes red, thick and scaly plaques. Dermatitis is a general term for inflammation of the skin due to various causes. Skin cancer is a malignant growth of skin cells due to exposure to UV radiation or other factors. Burns are injuries to the skin caused by heat, chemicals, electricity or radiation. Wounds are injuries to the skin caused by cuts, scrapes, punctures or bites. Infections are invasions of the skin by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses or parasites. Allergies are hypersensitive reactions of the skin to substances such as pollen, dust, food or drugs.

10. What are the three types of levers in the human body and give an example of each? Answer: The three types of levers in the human body are first-class, second-class and third-class. A lever is a rigid bar that rotates around a fixed point called a fulcrum. The lever has two forces acting on it: an effort force that moves the lever and a resistance force that opposes the movement. A first-class lever has the fulcrum between the effort and the resistance, such as the head resting on the neck vertebrae. A second-class lever has the resistance between the fulcrum and the effort, such as the foot pushing down

on the ground. A third-class lever has the effort between the fulcrum and the resistance, such as the biceps curling the forearm. B:

1. What is the primary role of the immune system in the body? Provide an explanation with rationales. Answer: The immune system's primary role is to defend the body against harmful pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses. It identifies and eliminates these foreign invaders through a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs. This function is crucial in maintaining the body's overall health and preventing the onset of diseases.
2. Describe the difference between innate and adaptive immunity. Support your answer with rationales. Answer: Innate immunity is the body's nonspecific defense mechanism, which provides immediate protection against various pathogens. It includes physical barriers, such as the skin and mucous membranes, as well as immune cells like neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells. Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is a highly specific defense mechanism that takes time to develop. It involves the production of antibodies and memory cells that provide

long-lasting protection against specific pathogens. These two components work together to protect the body from diseases.

3. How does the immune system recognize and distinguish self-cells from foreign cells? Explain with rationales. Answer: The immune system recognizes self-cells through the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules present on the surface of every cell. These molecules display peptides derived from the cell's internal proteins, allowing immune cells to monitor and identify "self" cells. When foreign cells or pathogens invade the body, they present different peptides, triggering an immune response. This mechanism helps to maintain immune tolerance and prevent the immune system from attacking healthy self- tissues.
4. Explain the concept of immunological memory. Provide rationales for its importance. Answer: Immunological memory refers to the ability of the immune system to remember and recognize specific pathogens it encountered previously. Memory cells, formed during an initial exposure to a pathogen, remain in the body even after the pathogen is eliminated. If the same pathogen enters the body again, memory B cells produce a rapid and

robust immune response by quickly producing antibodies. This mechanism provides faster and stronger protection against previously encountered pathogens, preventing the recurrence of diseases.

5. What are the primary cells involved in adaptive immunity? Provide rationales for their significance. Answer: The primary cells involved in adaptive immunity are T cells and B cells. T cells play a crucial role in coordinating immune responses, including the activation of other immune cells and elimination of infected cells. B cells produce antibodies that bind to specific antigens and help neutralize pathogens. Both cell types bear receptors on their surfaces that can recognize and respond to unique epitopes on pathogens. Their collaboration is essential for mounting an effective adaptive immune response.
6. Describe the different types of immune responses, including humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Support your answer with rationales. Answer: Humoral immunity refers to the immune response mediated by antibodies produced by B cells. These antibodies circulate in body fluids and neutralize pathogens by binding to their surface molecules. Cell-mediated immunity is mediated by T cells and involves direct cellular interactions. T cells can kill infected cells directly,

secrete cytokines to attract other immune cells, and regulate the immune response. Both humoral and cell- mediated immunity work together to provide comprehensive protection against various pathogens.

7. What is the primary role of antibodies? Provide rationales. Answer: Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, play a crucial role in the immune response by recognizing and binding to specific antigens on pathogens. This binding can neutralize the pathogen directly, prevent its attachment to host cells, or mark it for destruction by immune cells. Antibodies also enhance the phagocytosis of pathogens by coating them, a process known as opsonization. Their diverse functions make antibodies an essential component of the immune system's defense mechanisms.
8. How does the immune system respond to vaccines? Explain with rationales. Answer: Vaccines stimulate the immune system to develop a protective response against specific pathogens without causing the disease itself. When a vaccine is administered, it contains either weakened or inactivated antigens that resemble the pathogen. This exposure triggers the production of memory cells, leading to the quicker and

more efficient response upon future encounters with the actual pathogen. Vaccines are crucial in preventing the onset of diseases and reducing the severity of infections.

9. What is autoimmune disease? Provide examples and rationales for their occurrence. Answer: Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy self-tissues as if they were foreign invaders. Examples of autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and multiple sclerosis. The exact causes of autoimmune diseases are not fully understood, but factors such as genetic predisposition and environmental triggers play a role. These conditions can cause chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and various health issues that require long-term management.
10. How do immunosuppressive medications work, and what are their applications? Support your answer with rationales. Answer: Immunosuppressive medications inhibit the activity of the immune system by suppressing the production and activation of immune cells. These medications are commonly used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases and organ transplantation. By

reducing immune responses, these drugs help control excessive inflammation and prevent the immune system from attacking its own tissues or rejecting transplanted organs.

11. Describe the role of the lymphatic system in immune responses. Provide rationales for its significance. Answer: The lymphatic system is a network of vessels and lymph nodes that help circulate lymph fluid throughout the body. It plays a vital role in immune responses by transporting immune cells, such as lymphocytes, to various tissues and organs. Lymph nodes act as filters, trapping and removing foreign substances, pathogens, and antigens. The lymphatic system also serves as a pathway for immune cells and antibodies to coordinate immune responses and protect the body against infections.
12. How does chronic stress impact the immune system? Explain with rationales. Answer: Chronic stress can negatively affect the immune system by suppressing its function and increasing susceptibility to infections. Stress hormones, such as cortisol, released during long-term stress, can reduce the production and activity of immune cells, impair the

response to vaccines, and delay wound healing. Additionally, stress can lead to unhealthy behaviors, further weakening the immune system. It is crucial to manage and reduce chronic stress to maintain a healthy immune response.

13. Explain the concept of herd immunity. Support your answer with rationales. Answer: Herd immunity, also known as community immunity, occurs when a significant portion of the population becomes immune to a particular pathogen, either through vaccination or prior infection. When a large number of individuals are immune, the transmission of the pathogen within the community is reduced, protecting vulnerable individuals who cannot be vaccinated or have weaker immune systems. Herd immunity is vital for preventing the spread of infectious diseases within populations.
14. What is the role of inflammation in immune responses? Provide rationales for its importance. Answer: Inflammation is a fundamental defense mechanism of the immune system in response to infection, injury, or tissue damage. It helps to isolate and eliminate pathogens, initiate the repair process, and recruit immune cells to the affected area. By increasing blood flow and

permeability of blood vessels, inflammation ensures a sufficient supply of immune cells and molecular mediators to fight against infections. However, chronic inflammation can lead to tissue damage and contribute to the development of various diseases.

15. How does aging affect the immune system? Explain the rationales behind this phenomenon. Answer: Aging leads to changes in the immune system, a process known as immunosenescence. It results in a decline in immune function, making older individuals more susceptible to infections, less responsive to vaccines, and prone to developing autoimmune diseases and cancers. These changes include reduced production and function of immune cells, decreased efficiency in immune responses, and impaired ability to generate immunological memory. Understanding these age-related immune alterations is crucial for providing appropriate healthcare to the aging population. C:

Question: Describe the process of digestion, including the role of enzymes and the organs involved. Answer: Digestion is the process of breaking down food into smaller, absorbable components. It begins in the mouth with the action of amylase, continues in the stomach with the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, and further progresses in the small intestine with the release of pancreatic enzymes such as lipase, protease, and amylase. The liver and gallbladder also play a role in producing bile, which aids in the breakdown of fats. Question: What is the function of the large intestine in the digestive system? Answer: The large intestine, also known as the colon, primarily functions in the absorption of water and electrolytes from undigested food material. It also plays a role in the formation and storage of feces before elimination. Question: Explain the process of urine formation in the kidneys, highlighting the role of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Answer: Urine formation begins with the filtration of

blood in the glomerulus, where water, ions, and small molecules are filtered into the renal tubules. Subsequently, reabsorption of essential substances such as glucose and amino acids occurs in the proximal tubule, while secretion of waste products such as urea and creatinine takes place in the distal tubule. Question: Discuss the hormonal regulation of the excretory system, focusing on the role of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone. Answer: ADH, also known as vasopressin, acts on the kidneys to increase water reabsorption, thereby reducing urine output and conserving body fluids. Aldosterone, on the other hand, promotes the reabsorption of sodium and water in the distal tubules and collecting ducts, influencing blood pressure and electrolyte balance. Question: What are the primary functions of the kidneys in maintaining homeostasis? Answer: The kidneys regulate the body's fluid balance, electrolyte levels, and acid-base balance. They also play a crucial role in the excretion of metabolic waste products and the production of hormones such as erythropoietin and renin.

Question: Compare and contrast the structure and function of the urinary bladder and the ureters. Answer: The urinary bladder is a muscular sac that stores urine temporarily before elimination, while the ureters are muscular tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder's structure allows for distention to accommodate varying urine volumes, whereas the ureters' peristaltic contractions aid in urine transport. Question: Describe the role of peristalsis in the movement of food through the digestive system. Answer: Peristalsis is a coordinated muscular contraction and relaxation that propels food through the digestive tract. It occurs in the esophagus to move food to the stomach and in the intestines to facilitate the mixing and propulsion of chyme. Question: Explain the significance of the hepatic portal system in the circulation of nutrients from the digestive system to the liver. Answer: The hepatic portal system allows for the transport of nutrients, as well as toxins and drugs, from the digestive organs to the liver for processing and

detoxification before entering the systemic circulation. Question: Discuss the role of the pancreas in the regulation of blood glucose levels and the digestive process. Answer: The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels. It also produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are released into the small intestine to aid in the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Question: How does the structure of the nephron contribute to its function in urine formation? Answer: The nephron, the functional unit of the kidney, consists of a glomerulus for filtration, a tubular system for reabsorption and secretion, and a collecting duct for the concentration of urine. This structural arrangement allows for the intricate processes involved in urine formation. Question: Elaborate on the role of the gallbladder in the digestion of fats and the storage of bile. Answer: The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile

produced by the liver, which is released into the small intestine to aid in the emulsification and digestion of fats. Bile salts help in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and fatty acids. Question: Explain the concept of osmoregulation in the context of kidney function. Answer: Osmoregulation refers to the regulation of water and solute concentrations in the body. The kidneys achieve osmoregulation through the selective reabsorption and excretion of water and solutes, maintaining the body's internal environment within a narrow range. Question: Describe the role of the mucus layer in protecting the stomach lining from digestive enzymes and acid. Answer: The mucus layer, along with bicarbonate secretion, forms a protective barrier on the stomach lining, preventing the auto-digestion of the mucosa by gastric acid and pepsin. This defense mechanism helps maintain the integrity of the stomach wall.

Question: Compare the mechanisms of voluntary and involuntary control of the digestive and excretory systems. Answer: Voluntary control, such as swallowing and defecation, involves conscious regulation, while involuntary control, including peristalsis and the regulation of blood pressure by the kidneys, occurs automatically without conscious effort. Question: Discuss the impact of aging on the digestive and excretory systems, addressing changes in function and potential health implications. Answer: Aging can lead to reduced digestive enzyme production, slower peristalsis, decreased kidney function, and a higher risk of urinary incontinence. These changes may contribute to nutritional deficiencies and an increased susceptibility to urinary tract infections and kidney disease.