Cell Biology and Plant Physiology, Exams of Advanced Education

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Biology Proctored Exam Penn Foster

Characteristics of living things - Answer- -All are composed of cells -All obtain energy and use it to develop -Can sense changes in the environment and adjust in response to change -Exhibit modifications that represent adaptations to their environment Levels of Biological Organization - Answer- atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism How are organisms classified? - Answer- on the basis of their evolutionary/genetic relatedness What is the scientific method? What is it's importance in biological sciences? - Answer- Process used to validate observations while minimizing observer bias It's goal is for research to be conduced in a fair, unbiased and repeatable manner. The best way to discover how and why the world works What is matter? - Answer- Anything that has mass and takes up space What is an atom? - Answer- smallest unit of matter that retains all the chemical properties of an element. They combine to form molecules which then form into a solid, gas or liquid What is the structure of an atom? - Answer- Nucleus in the center that contains protons (positively charged) and neutrons (no charge). The outermost region is called an electron shell that contain the electrons (negatively charged) What is an ionic bond? - Answer- A chemical bond that's formed when an atom transfers and electron to another Atom What is a covalent bond? - Answer- Results when 2 atoms share electrons in order to have a completed outer shell What is a double covalent bond? - Answer- Occurs when 2 atoms share 2 pairs of electroms

In order to be an organic molecule it must contain what? - Answer- Carbon and hydrogen What are the main groups of organic molecules that build cells and their parts? - Answer- Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acid What are the properties of water? - Answer- Its attraction to polar molecules. High-specific heat. High heat of vaporization. The lower density of ice. High polarity. Carbohydrates - Answer- Broken down to glucose to provide energy. What are the different kinds of carbs? - Answer- Glucose= monosaccharide that serves as blood sugar Sucrose= disaccharide which is table sugar Polysaccharides= include starch, which stores energy in plants Glycogen= stores energy in animals Cellulose= makes up the structure of plant cell walls Protein - Answer- macromolecule that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; needed by the body for growth and repair Lipid - Answer- Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Serve as a long term energy source Nucleic acid - Answer- macromolecule containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus Form DNA which acts to store genetic information What is the cell theory? - Answer- All living organisms are made up of cells The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of all living organisms All cells arise from pre-existing cells Ribosome - Answer- Makes proteins Endoplasmic Reticulum - Answer- A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another. Smooth ER - Answer- Makes lipids Rough ER - Answer- That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes. Golgi Apparatus - Answer- Sorts and packs protein into vesicles and transports them

Lysosome - Answer- Digests food, bacteria and worn out organelles Vacuole - Answer- Stores food, enzymes and other material Mitochondria - Answer- Powerhouse of the cell- produces energy for growth, development and movement Nucleus - Answer- A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction Cell wall - Answer- A rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane and provides support to the cell Explain the process of diffusion: - Answer- Molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until the concentration of molecules is the same at both sites Explain the process of osmosis: - Answer- Water moves from areas of low solute concentration to areas of high solute concentration Describe a basic enzymatic reaction: - Answer- S+E= P+E E represents the enzyme catalyzing the reaction S is the substance being changed P is the product of the reaction What is an enzyme? - Answer- Catalysts that increase the speed of a chemical reaction without undergoing any permanent chemical change What is the process of photosynthesis? - Answer- -The process in which the Sun's energy is converted into chemical energy (occurs in chloroplasts). -Carbon dioxide and water are added -Sugar and oxygen are produced What is cellular respiration? - Answer- Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy from food in the presence of oxygen. What is the cellular respiration equation? - Answer- 6O2 + C6H12O6 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O

• Energy What is glycolysis? - Answer- "splitting sugars." yields two molecules of ATP. What is Krebs cycle? - Answer- This term refers to a series of chemical reactions that involve the complete oxidation of acetyl CoA and produce 2 mol of ATP (energy) along with hydrogen and carbon, which combine with oxygen to form (H2O) and (CO2).

What is the electron transport chain? - Answer- Is a sequence of electron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons, down a series of reactions that release energy; used to make ATP. What is cellular reproduction? - Answer- Process by which cells divide to form new cells Growth phase- cell duplicates its contents and DNA Cell Division- the cytoplasm and DNA of a parent cell are distribute to 2 daughter cells How many chromosomes do humans have? - Answer- 46 (23 pairs) What is nondisjunction and when does it occur? - Answer- Nondisjunction occurs when chromosomes do not separate properly during cell division. This can form a gamete with an extra chromosome or one missing part or all of a chromosome (aka monosomy or trisomy). OCCURS DURING ANAPHASE 1 & 2 What is the law of dominance? - Answer- Mendel's 2nd law of inheritance - one gene usually expresses itself over the other (one gene is dominant over the other) What is the law of segregation? - Answer- during the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent What is the law of independent assortment? - Answer- Genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other What is DNA biotechnology and what are some issues? - Answer- Use of natural biological systems to create a product or achieve some other end desired by humans Issues: -People feel it goes against the laws of nature -People worry about the safety of it How can lack of genetic control lead to cancer? - Answer- When someone has inherited an abnormal copy of a gene, their cells already start out with one mutation. This makes it easier for enough mutations to build up for a cell to become cancer G1 (Growth 1) - Answer- Cell volume doubles and organelles replicate S phase (synthesis) - Answer- DNA is replicated G2 phase - Answer- cell produces proteins necessary for mitosis and then prepares to divide What are the stages of mitosis? - Answer- prophase= chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear enveloped disappears

metaphase= the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator midway between the spindle poles anaphase= sister chromatids separate and become daughter chromosomes- each pole receives a set of daughter chromosomes telophase= spindle disappears as new nuclear envelopes form around the daughter chromosomes- each nucleus contains the same number and kinds of chromosomes the original parent nucleus Describe the purpose of the cell cycle control system - Answer- Series of checkpoints to make sure that everything is proceeding properly. Checkpoints delay development from one phase off the cycle to the next until everything that should happen in a particular phase has happened Explain the phases of the cell cycle control system: - Answer- G1= cell can enter GO or under apoptosis if DNA is damaged beyond repair. If the cell cycle passes his checkpoint, the cell is committed to complete the cycle G2= the cell checks to make sure DNA has been replicated properly M Checkpoint= cell makes sure the chromosomes are properly aligned and ready to be partitioned to the daughter cells What is apoptosis? - Answer- Programmed chemical process that causes a cell to self- destruct Serves the purpose of keeping the number of cells in the body roughly constant and removing cells with damaged DNA Explain the basics of mitosis - Answer- Type of cell division in which one cell(the mother) divides to produce 2 new cells(the daughters) that are genetically identical to itself Somatic cells aids in the growth and development of an organism as well as in the replacement of old and injured cells

• results in 2 daughter cells that are genetically identical Explain the basics of meiosis - Answer- Type of cell division in which the number of chromosome is reduced in half from the diploid number (2n) to a haploid number (n). The result is 4 gametes: eggs in females and sperm in males Reproductive cells produces gametes for sexual reproduction
• The gametes contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell What are the stages of meiosis I? - Answer- Interphase: DNA in the cell is copied resulting in 2 identical full sets of chromosomes

Prophase 1: the copied chromosomes condense into x shaped structure- each chromosome is composed of 2 sister chromatids Metaphase 1: chromosome pairs line up next to each other along the center of the cell Anaphase 1: pair of chromosomes are pulled apart, pull one chromosome to each pole Telophase 1: chromosomes complete their move to opposite poles of the cell- 2 nuclei form What are the stages of meiosis II? - Answer- Prophase II: 2 daughter cells, each with 23 chromosomes

• membrane around the nucleus in each daughter cell dissolves away releasing chromosomes Metaphase II: 2 daughter cells in chromosomes line up end-to-end along the equator of the cell Anaphase II: Sister chromatids are then pulled to opposite poles due to the action of the meiotic spindle- separated chromatids are now individual chromosomes Telophase II: Chromosomes complete their move to the opposite poles of the cell
• Membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create 2 new cell nuclei What is the structure and function of DNA? - Answer- Long chain of repeating units called nucleotide that consist of 2 strands that spiral around each other in a structure called double helix Each contains a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and one of found nitrogen bases adenine(A), guanine(G), Cytosine(C), thymine(T) Function is to store all the genetic information that an organism needs to develop, function and reproduce What is a purine? - Answer- Adenine and Guanine What is a pyrimidine? - Answer- thymine and cytosine What is the structure and function of RNA? - Answer- A single-stranded molecule that consists of nucleotides arranged in a long chain Contains a 4-carbon sugar called ribose, phosphate groups and 4 nitrogen-containing bases- Adenine(A), Guanine(G), Cytosine(C), uracil(U) Functions to convert the information stored in DNA into proteins What is messenger RNA (mRNA)? - Answer- Carries information coding for protein synthesis from DNA to the ribosomes of the cell What is transfer RNA (tRNA)? - Answer- Caries the required amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome for protein synthesis. Helps to arrange the amino acids into the proper sequence for the synthesis of proteins

What is ribosomal RNA (rRNA)? - Answer- RNA that becomes part of ribosomes (the main component of ribosomes) and catalyzes the bonding of amino acids What is a prokaryotic cell and what is the structure? - Answer- No true nucleas as the DNA is coiled up in the region of the cytoplasm called the nucleotide Capsule: outer covering that protects the cell Cell Wall: Outer covering that protects the bacterial cell and gives it shape Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance composed of mainly of water Plasma Membrane: Surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell Flagella: Long whip-like protrusion that aids in cellular locomotion Ribosomes: Responsible for protein production Plasmids: gene carrying Nucleoid Region: area of the cytoplasm that contains the single bacterial DNA molecules What is a eukaryotic cell and what is the structure? - Answer- An organism whose cells contain a nucleus surround by a membrane whose DNA is bound together by proteins into chromosomes Nucleus: Directs cell activities and contains genetic material Mitochondria: Make energy out of food Ribosomes: make protein Golgi apparatus: make, process and packages proteins Lysosomes: Contains digestive enzymes to help break food down Endoplasmic Reticulum: Transports all sorts of items around the cell Vacuole: Used for storage usually contain water or food Plants have: Chloroplast: Use sunlight to create food by photosynthesis Cell Wall: For support What are the characteristics of cancer? - Answer- -Lack differentiation: lose their specialization and do not contribute to the functioning of a body part

• Have abnormal nuclei: enlarged and may contain abnormal;, duplicated or deleted chromosomes
• Do not undergo apoptosis: do not respond to normal signals to initiate apoptosis and they continue to divide
• Form tumors: have lost all restraint and they pile on top of one another and grow in multiple layers forming a tumor What is a malignant tumor? - Answer- Invasive and may spread to other places to form new tumors elsewhere

What is a benign tumor? - Answer- Contained within a capsule and cannot invade adjacent tissue How does cancer develop? - Answer- Develops when the bodies normal control mechanism stops working. Old cells do not die and instead grow out of control forming new abnormal cells called tumors What is the function of the epithelial tissue? - Answer- covers body surfaces and lines body cavities What is the function of connective tissue? - Answer- Binds and supports body parts What is the function of muscular tissue? - Answer- Moves the body and its parts What is the function of nervous tissue? - Answer- receives stimuli and conducts nerve impulses Kingdom Archaebacteraia - Answer- Domain: Archaea Cell Type: prokaryotic, unicellular Ex: methanogens, halophiles Kingdom Eubacteria - Answer- Domain: Bacteria Cell Type: Prokaryotic, unicellular Ex: Bacteria Kingdom Protista - Answer- Domain: Eukarya Cell Type: Eukaryotic, Multicellular Ex: Green algae, slime molds Kingdom Fungi - Answer- Domain: Eukarya Cell Type: Eukaryotic, multicellular Ex: Mushrooms, yeast, mold Kingdom Plantae - Answer- Domain: Eukarya Cell Type: Eukaryotic, multicellular Ex: Moss Kingdom Animalia - Answer- Domain: Eukarya Cell Type: Eukaryotic, Multicellular Ex: Mammals, sponges, insects Explain the effects human society has had on the worlds ecosystem: - Answer- Emerging Diseases: changes in human behavior and use of technology can result in new disease Extinction: Estimated we are loosing hundreds of species every year due to human activity

Climate change: Changes in the normal cycles of the earths climate that may be attributed to human activity Greenhouse effect: Gases allow the suns ray to pass through, but they absorb and radiate heat back to Earth Explain Darwin's theory of natural selection - Answer- Process by which organisms develop adaptations to their environment and is the mechanism that results in evolution over many generations Explain Darwin's theory of evolution - Answer- Genetic change in a line of descent over time is responsible for the tremendous diversity of life forms on Earth Explain Microevolution - Answer- Refers to the evolutionary changes within a population What are causes of microevolution? - Answer- Mutations: cause genetic variations within a breeding population Gene flow: occurs when alleles are exchanged between migrating populations of the same species Random Mating: Occurs when males and females mate by chance according to the laws of probability and not by the selection of certain genotype or phenotype Genetic Drift: the tendency of allele ratios to change simply by chance Bottleneck effect: may occur when some kind of natural catastrophe greatly reduces the size of a species population Founder effect: may occur when populations are separated to interbreed more or less exclusive over time Describe the factors that are necessary for natural selection to occur: - Answer- - Population members exhibit differences that are heritable

• Population members produce more offspring than can be supported by the environmental resources
• Competition exists between population members for limited resources and results in increased survival and reproduction of better adapted individuals
• Through many generations, a greater portion of the popopulation exhibits adaptions to the environment and thus the population as a whole evolves What is directional selection? - Answer- Occurs when an extreme phenotype is favoured
• Curve shifts in one direction What is stabilizing selection? - Answer- takes place when extreme phenotype are selected against, thus resulting in average or intermediate prototypes

• The peak of the curve increases What is disruptive selection? - Answer- Occurs when 2 or more extreme phenotypes are favoured over intermediate types
• The curve has 2 peaks What is sexual selection? - Answer- Adaptive changes in either sex that lead to an increase in the ability to attract and secure a mate What is speciation? - Answer- the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. What is allopatric speciation? - Answer- a physical barrier divides one population into two or more populations What is peripatetic speciation? - Answer- When small groups of individuals break off from the larger group and form a new species What is parapatric speciation? - Answer- A species is spread out over a large geographic area. Individuals only mate with those in their own region. The species are separated by differences in the same environment What is sympatric speciation? - Answer- Occurs when there are no physical barriers preventing any members of a species from mating with another and all members are in close proximity to one another What is adaptive radiation? - Answer- Occurs when neighboring populations become separate species even though their territories overlap in a certain area What is gradualistic equilibirum? - Answer- Is selection and variation that happens more gradually over a long time population changes -Change is slow, constant and consistent What is punctuated equilibrium? - Answer- here is a period of very little change, and then one or a few huge changes occur. The species changes very rapidly over a few generations, then settles down again to a period of little change
• New species appear suddenly and then remain largely unchanged until they go extinct Discuss the principles of taxonomy and the classification of species - Answer- -The identification, naming and classification or organisms
• Species are assigned to a family, order, class, phylum, kingdom and domain based on their structural similarities to species Discuss Viruses - Answer- Tiny non cellular organic systems that have some properties of living things, but are not classified as living organisms
• Tend to enter plants through damaged tissues and in animals invade Eukaryota cells

Ex: measles, chicken pox, common cold Discuss Prokaytoes - Answer- Sorted into 2 domains: bacteria and archaea Bacteria: photoautotrophs: capable of oxygen-based photosynthesis Chemoheterotrophs: Obtain their nutrition from other organisms Arechae: Consists of ancient prokaryotes taht are adapted to extreme habitats

• Thrive in oxygen-free environments such as sewage swamps and animal guts How does bacteria reproduce? - Answer- may reproduce by 3 means of genetic recombination:: Conjugation: occurs in closely related species, DNA is passed from a donor cell to a recipient cell through tiny tubes Transformation: Fragments of DNA are picked up from surrounding living or dead bacteria transduction: Baceriophaes carry portions of bacterial DNA from one cell to another Discuss protists - Answer- Include all the eukaryuotic unicellular organisms that may resemble either animals or plants 3 groups: Algae: plantlike protists which are generally photosynthetic Protozoans: Categorized by types of locomtion they employ slime and water molds: feed on dead plant matter and assist with the cycling of nutrients Define the types of locomotion - Answer- Ciliates: hairlike cilia for swimming about to capture food Amoeboids: use false feet for moving around and capturing prey Radiolarians: marine amoeboids that form calcium carbonate shells Zooflagellates: move about by means of long slender extensions called flagella Sporzoans: Aren't mobile or capable of self propulsion What are nonvacular plants? - Answer- Plants that are well adapted for growth in moist habitats
• Have no vascular tissues, instead they have threadlike structures for absorbing water and solutes What are seedless vascular plants? - Answer- Plants that contain vacular tissue but do not produce flowers or seeds What are seed-bearing vacular plants? - Answer- They produce seeds that encase their embryonic sporophyte inside a protective coat What is pollination? - Answer- male gametophyte pollen grain lands on a female gametophjyte and they form a pollen tube that carries a sperm cell to fertilize an egg within an ovule

What are angiosperms? - Answer- Flowering plants in which the seed in enclosed within a fruit wall What is fungi? - Answer- Non-green, heterotrophic organisms that grow in dark, moist habitats

• Do not have chloroplasts, can't photosynthesis, are multi cellular eukaryotes and more closely related to animals rather than plants Ex: Mushrooms, molds, yeast Parts: Mycelium: vegetable part that consists of a network of fine white filaments (hyphae) Hyphae: Create an expanded surface area, allowing them greater efficient in extracting water and nutrients form soils What are invertebrates? - Answer- Lack an internal skeleton
• evolved first and outnumber vertebrates What are protostomes? - Answer- Characterized by spiral cell division when the embryo first forms and a Elastoplast becomes the mouth
• Mouth is the first opening (proto, before)
• Ex: flatworms, roundworms, mollusks, arthropods What are deuterostomes? - Answer- Characterized by radial cell division when he embryo first forms and a blastoplore becomes the anus
• Second opening (deutero, second)
• Ex: echinoderms, chordates Describe the evolution of chrodates: - Answer- The earliest chordates were all marine animals. As chordates continued to evolve, they spread to freshwater habitats and to land. The amphibians represent an intermediate phase in the water to the land transition of chordates. The evolution of birds further increases the disturbed of chordates by expanding their populations into sky habitats. Explain the imporatint classifications of primates: - Answer- Prosimians- lemurs and tarsiers Anthropoids- monkeys, apes and humans Hominids- apes, chimpanzees and humans Hominins- humans Explain the innovations that lead to the evolution of hominins - Answer- Bipedal: had a small brain but walked upright on 2 legs Tool Use Is certain to have made tools and may have been the first to exhibit culture Increased brain size: Double the brain size and may have been the first to control fire and use more complex tools

What is the epidermis? - Answer- Outside of a plant that is made up of a single layer of cells

• Cells exposed to air are covered with a waxy cuticle which restricts water loss What is ground tissue? - Answer- Make up the bulk of the plant body- includes 3 types of simple tissue: Parenchyma cells: have thin walls and are active in photosynthesis and storage Collenchyma cells: provide support for primary tissues Sclerenchyma cells: Fibrous cells that give stalks their gravity-resisting strength What is vascular tissue? - Answer- Composed of 2 types of tissues Xylem: conducts water and dissolved minerals through the plant body Phloem: Conducts sugars and other solutes throughout the plant Explain how water is transported through plants - Answer- Cohesion-tension model: Water and minerals in solute are taken up in root hairs and then transported upward in xylem Transpiration: as dry air crosses a lear surface when stomata are open, water in the plant evaporates in the air Explain the different plant responses - Answer- Phototropism: causes plants to turn toward light Gravitropsim: causes plant stems to curve away from gravity Explain the different plant hormones: - Answer- Chemical signals that cause responses within plant cells and tissues Auxin's: soften cell walls to allow growth Gibberellins: promote stem elongation and break seed dormancy Cytokinins: promote cell division, prevent age of leaves Abscisic Acid: initiates and maintains seed dormancy and closing of stomata Ethylene: causes detachment of leaves, fruits, flowers and ripen fruits Explain the male reproductive parts of a plant - Answer- Stamens: made up of anthers on a long stalk called a filament Anthers contain pollen sacs Haploid spores form in the anthers and give rise to the male gametophyes, which are pollen grains Explain the female reproductive parts of a plant - Answer- Carples Composed of a stigma, a style and an ovary where an egg develops Discuss how plants reproduce - Answer- Most plants reproduce sexually by alternating the production of sporophytes, the spore-producing bodies, with the production of gametophytes-gamete producing bodies
• as flowers form they differentiate into nonfertible parts, the sepals and petals and fertile parts, the stamens and carpels

What do roots do? - Answer- Specialized structures for the absorption of minerals and water from the soil What do stems do? - Answer- Support and anchor the aboveground portion of the plant, and carry water and food from place to place within the plant What do leaves do? - Answer- Manafacture food for plant growth and repair What do stamens do? - Answer- Contains the pollen which insects and birds are attracted to What is the process of homeostasis? - Answer- Refers to stability, balance and equilibrium

• Is the bodies attempt to maintain a constant and balanced internal environment
• Maintaining a constant internal environment with everything that the cells need to survive is necessary for the well-being of individual cells and the well-being of the entire body Explain the importance of neurons - Answer- Fundamental unit of the nervous system. Purpose is to receive incoming information, send a signal to other neurons, muscles or glands. They are designed to rapidly send signals across long distances. They do this using electrical signals called nerve impulse. When a nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the release of a chemical or neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter travels across the short gab between cells and acts to signal the adjacent cell. Explain the central nervous sytem - Answer- composed of the brain and the spinal chord
• Brain is the master control system of the body. it receives, integrates, stores and retrieves sensory information
• The spinal cord is the expressway for signals between the brain the the pns system. It's responsible for reflexes, and involuntary protective reactions Explain the peripheral nervous system - Answer- Consists of cable-like bundles called nerves that carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body somatic system: carries signals about moving the head, trunk and limbs -This system controls reflexes Autonomic system: carries signals to and from smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands Parasympathetic Divison: associated with happy feelings Sympathetic division: associated with stress and threats What do skeletal muscles do? - Answer- Attached to bones- functions in moving the body and its part

• under voluntary control by the nervous system What do cardiac muscles do? - Answer- Allows for contraction and relaxation of heart tissue
• provides flow of blood throughout the body What do smooth muscles do? - Answer- Present in the walls of the stomach, bladder, lungs, and other organs
• Responsible for gut motility, bladder emptying and other organ functions What does the circulatory system do? - Answer- Delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells and removes carbon dioxide and waste materials What is a closed circulatory system? - Answer- Blood in the system flows within a complex network of vessels that are all connected to each other. The blood is pumped by the heart through the body in a continuous circuit of different types of vessels What is an open circulatory system? - Answer- Instead of a heart, blood vessels join directly with open sinuses. Hemolymph is formed from the blood vessels into large sinuses, where it bathes the internal organs. Other vessels receive blood forced from these sinuses and conduct it back to the pumping vessels What are characteristics of blood? - Answer- - transports oxygen and nutrients to all the cells in the body
• carries away metabolic wastes and secretes them
• transports cells that fight infections and remove debris from tissues
• stabilizes body temperature by moving excess heat from the muscles to the skin for dissipation
• composed of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets called formed elements and plasma What are red blood cells? - Answer- Transports oxygen from aerobic respiration and carry away some of the carbon dioxide wastes What are white blood cells? - Answer- Help fight infections What are lymphocytes? - Answer- Type of WBC that attack foreign matter and fx as the source of viral defense What is nutrition? - Answer- Process by which food is obtained, prepared, absorbed and converted into body substances such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid What are macronutrients? - Answer- Carbs, proteins, lipids(fats)
• primary building blocks of your diet -Provide the body with the energy needed to maintain body functions and carry out the activities of daily life

-required in large amounts on a daily basis What are micronutrients? - Answer- Vitamins and minerals

• Help to process macro nutrients and are essential for growth and good health
• Required in small amounts What does the immune system do? - Answer- Helps the body repel foreign substances, cancers and pathogens Describe the various components that play a role in the body's defenses against disease - Answer- immunity: the ability of the body to protect and defend itself against foreign substances Red bone marrow: produces all kinds of blood cells, including cells important to the immune system Lymph nodes: filter impurities such as pathogens and antigens Spleen: spongy tissue of this organ is adapted to filtering out impurities from the blood Tonsil: Trap germs which you may breathe in -antibodies in tonsils help to kill germs and help to prevent thraot and lung infections Appendix: acts as a storehouse for good bacteria What are strategies for nonspecific defense again diseases: - Answer- Skin and mucous membranes: serve as a body surface barriers to entry -Pathogens can't get past the linings of these surfaces Inflammatory response: kicks in when a pathogen invades body tissues -necrophilia: ingest, kill and digest bacterial cells mast cells: release neutralizing chemicals macrophages: particle in the inflammatory response complement system: made up of blood plasma proteins that complement certain kinds of immune response actions Natural killer cells: large granular lymphocytes that kill cancer cells and cells infected by viruses Describe the function of the respiratory system - Answer- respiration is the process by which animals move oxygen into the blood and rid the body of the accumulated carbon dioxide wastes upper respiratory tract: nasal cavities: canals separated by a septum of bone and cartilage Sinuses: act as resonating chambers for speaking and singing Pharynx: passageway that connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx larynx: vocal cords-voice box lower respiratory tact: trachea: windpipe, tube connecting larynx to the bronchi bronchi: which enter the left and right lungs Lungs: pair of respiratory organs situated on each side of the heart

Diaphragm: Sits at base of the chest and separates the abdomen from the chest -contracts and flattens when you inhale -when you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and air is pushed out the lungs Alveoli: Tiny air sacs of the lungs which allow for rapid gaseous exchange Explain how breathing works - Answer- Inhalation= air enters the lungs Exhalation= air leaves the lungs

• as oxygen is removed from inhaled air, the air in the lungs quickly becomes saturated with carbon dioxide 0 during exhalation, air moves out the lungs, ribs fall, sternum sinks and the diaphragm arches upward -this reduces the volume capacity of the thorax and air is expelled from the lungs as a result Describe the function of the urinary system - Answer- - excretion of nitrogenous wastes
• maintenance of the water-salt balance of the blood
• maintenance of the acid-base balance of the blood Kidneys: help filter blood, help the body pass waste as urine Urine: made by the kidneys is conducted from the body by the other organs in the urinary system Urinary bladder: where urine is stored until it is voided from the body Urethra: tube that takes urine from the kidney to the muscular sac called the urinary bladder Explain urine formation - Answer- Filtration: moves small molecules from a blood capillary to the inside of the nephron capsule Re-absorption: substances from the proximal tubule move into the bloodstream Secretion: transport of substances into the nephron Describe the fucntion of the digestive system: - Answer- -Ingesting food -Break down of food into smaller molecules that can be transported
• Absorbing nutrient molecules
• Eliminating indigestible materials Mouth: entrance to the system where food is moistened and chewed Pharynx: short and wide space that serves as a passageway for food and air Esophagus: extends from the pahrnyx to the stomach Stomach: secretes acid and enzymes that digest food
• serves as temporary storage for food Small intestine: receives the chyme from the stomach Duodenum: receives bile from the liver and digestive enzymes from the pancreas Large intestine: absorbs water, salts and vitamins Pancreas: produces insulin Explain the human senses - Answer- Taste buds: stimulated by food molecules
• we experience different tastes such as sweet, sour, bitter and salty

Smells: chemo receptors detect smell odors from tiny proportions of odor-producing molecules in the air Sense of hearing: involves structures that collect and amplify sound waves from the environment Vision: What we see Parts of the male reproductive system: - Answer- Testes: produce sperm and sex hormones that control both reproduction functions and secondary sexual traits

• After sperm is produced, they travel from each testis through a duct called the epdidymis where they completely mature Vas deferens: transports mature sperm to the urethra Urethra: tube that carries urine or sperm to the outside of the body Parts of the female reproductive system - Answer- Ovaries: produce eggs and secrete sex hormones Oviducts: from channels into the uterus Uterus: organ that embryos develop and grow in Endometrium: inner ling of the uterine wall and is composed of specialized tissue Characteristics of a more-developed country - Answer- - High standard of living
• High GDP per captia
• Advanced public transportation
• Low poverty
• Low number of homelessness
• High quality of education
• Advanced Military and security Characteristics of a less-developed country - Answer- - Low GDP per capita
• High levels of poverty
• Dependence on agriculture and the export of primary products
• Highers rates of population growth
• Low levels of productivity
• High levels of unemployment Explain opportunistic populations - Answer- - Small individuals
• Short life span
• Fast to mature
• Many offspring
• Little to no care of offspring
• Exponential growth Explain equilibrium populations - Answer- - Large individuals
• Long life span
• Slow to mature
• Few offspring
• Much care of offspring

• Logistic growth Explain species composition - Answer- number of species that exist within a particular community Explain species diversity - Answer- Takes into account both species richness and the distribution of individuals from the different species present Explain ecological succession - Answer- occurs when a community changes in composition and diversity, from one type to another type in a more or less orderly manner Explain primary succession - Answer- occurs on surface where no soil exists Explain secondary succession - Answer- Occurs after a disturbance that does not completely destroy a community-leaving some nutrient soil and perhaps some vegetation. (cutting your grass) Explain the competitive exclusion principle. - Answer- No 2 species can occupy the same niche in the same habitat at the same time. Competition will follow until one species finds a new niche, moves out of the ecosystem, or dies. Explain resource partioning - Answer- Division of limited resources by species to help avoid competition in an ecological niche Explain mutualism - Answer- Beneficial relationship between 2 species Explain keystone species - Answer- acts to hold the web of interactions together, thus acting to stabilize the community Explain how energy flows through ecosystems - Answer- producers get energy from the sun, then the consumers eat the producer which gives them energy, then once the consumer dies the decomposer decomposes it and that gives energy back to the producer Explain the biochemical cycle - Answer- movement of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. Can be taken up by living things and used for growth and reproduction Explain the carbon cycle - Answer- Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Plants take in carbon dioxide and go through photosynthesis and produces carbs. The carbs are then passed along food webs to animals and other consumers. Explain the phosphorus cycle - Answer- Phosphate is found in rocks, phosphate degrades into the river, creating a phosphate solution which is absorbed into the soil and into the roots of plants which are then eaten by consumers of the area

Explain the nitrogen cycle - Answer- Nitrogen gas gets into the soil by rain. Then a nitrogen-fixing bacteria turns it into a usable compound for plants by adding oxygen and hydrogen. It can also be "fixed" by lightning. Animals get nitrogen by consuming plant protein. The compounds are return to the soil as waste or dead organisms. They can either go back to nitrofication bacteria or denitrication bacteria. What are renewable resources? - Answer- Available in unlimited supply

• Energy sources like solar radiation and wine, animals for food
• Must be careful not to over consume them What are nonrenewable resources? - Answer- Limited amounts of supply
• Fossil fuels, copper, zinc, silver, sand, gravel, phosphate
• may result in pollution: negative consequence that often accompanies resource extraction and consumption Explain why humans depend on land - Answer- - people require a physical place t live
• Needed for a variety of uses from homes, agriculture, electric power plants, manufacturing plants, highways, hospitals, schools
• Human actives like farming, mining and habituation has contributed to pollution, deforestation and loss of biodiversity Explain why humans depend on water - Answer- - Access to clean drinking water is considered a human right, but most freshwater is used by agriculture and industry's
• Used for cooking, bathing, flushing toilets, watering laws, drinking
• Irrigation of farmlands consume large amounts of water and can lead to build of salts in soil that can be toxic to plants Explain why humans depend on food - Answer- - Comes from growing crops, raising animals and fishing the seas
• World fish population has declined due to increased number and efficiency of fishing boats
• Modern farming increase the food supply but they harm the land, pollute water and consume fossil fuels Explain why humans depend on energy - Answer- - 6% of world's energy comes from nuclear power and 81% comes from fossil fuels
• Using fossil fuels causes pollutants and greenhouse gases to enter the air Explain why humans depend on minerals - Answer- - nonrenewable raw materials in the earth crust that can be mined and used by humans
• sand, iron, gravel, phosphate, gold
• Act of mining causes destruction of land by erosion, loss of vegetation, and toxic runoff into bodies of water Explain biodiversity - Answer- The variety of life on Earth

hotspots: biographic region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction Explain direct values - Answer- - medical value (medicines derived from living organisms)

• agricultural value (crops derived from wild plants)
• biological pest controls and animal pollinators
• consumptive use values (food production) Explain indirect values - Answer- - The functioning of biogeochemical cycles )water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus)
• Waste disposal (through the action of decomposers and the ability of natural communities to purify water and take up pollutants)
• Freshwater provision through the water biogeochemical cycle
• Prevention of soil erosion, which occurs naturally in intact ecosystems
• Climate regulations (plants take up carbon dioxide)
• Ecotoursion (human enjoyment of a beautiful ecosystem) Provide examples of threats to biodiversity - Answer- Climate change: seasons, rising of sea levels, and glaciers melting Deforestation and habitat loss, agriculture, mining, deforestation and water extraction are all causes of habitat loss Pollution: from burning of fossil fuels and dumping plastic into our oceans- pollution disrupts the earth ecosystem Overexploitation: refers to the act of over-harvesting species and natural resources at rates faster than they can actually sustain themselves in the wild Discuss approaches toward a sustainable society - Answer- - Would use only renewable energy resources, reuse heat and waste materials and recycle almost everything
• Would provide the same goods and services presently provided and would preserve biodiversity Describe abiotic factors that influence population growth - Answer- include natural disasters such as flash floods and volcanic eruptions
• may radically reduce population but population destiny doesn't affect the proportion of a population killed Describe biotic factors that influence population growth - Answer- competition: for food supply, breeding resources or other resource grows more intense as population density increases predation: when densities are high, the instances of predation are greater and the mortality rate is much higher Predator-prey: tend to vary in cycles

Discuss and explain concepts about earth's human population - Answer- - The industrial revolution brought an increase in the production of food and medicines, along with a decrease in the death rate. The growth curve for the human population began to increase

• Growth rate of the human population is determined by the difference between the number of people born and the number of people who die each year
• Some places around the world people don't have adequate access to fresh water, food, shelter, water, and energy Flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes) - Answer- First animals to display bilateral symmetry and actual organ systems hermaphrodites: have both male and female reproductive parts
• reproduce sexually by exchanging sperm with another individual Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca) - Answer- bilateral symmetry with a fleshy, soft body enclosed within a shell composed of calcium carbonate Visceral mass: holds the internal organs Muscular foot: used for movement Mantel: drapes over the visceral mass Major classes: Gastropods: animals move by muscle contractions that pass along the food ex: conchs and snails Cephalopods: the foot has evolved into tentacles about the head -Posses well developed nervous systems and complex sensory organs ex: squid, octopus Annelids (phylum Annelida) - Answer- segmented worms are organisms with highly pronounced segmentation as well as bilateral symmetry septa: divide the well developed, fluid-filled coelom, which functions to facilitate movement -brain connected to a ventral nerve cord ex: earthworms leeches Roundworms (Phylum Nematoda) - Answer- nonsegment meaning they have a smooth outside body wall
• generally coloress and occur almost everywhere digestive tract is complete because it has both a mouth an anus Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) - Answer- Jointed appendages: hollow tubes moved by muscles, become adapted to means of locomotion, food gathering and reproduction Exoskeleton: composed of chitin, strong, flexible, nitrogenous polysaccaride Segmentation: repeating units of the body Well-developed nervous system: have a brain and a ventral nerve cord ex: crustaceans: marine animals= shrimp, lobster, crabs ex: arachnids: land arthropods= spiders, scorpion, ticks

ex: insects: 6 legs and 1 or 2 pairs of wings= beetle, bees, butterfly Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata) - Answer- display radial symmetry, with some bilateral features during larval stages

• adults do not have a head, brain or segmntation
• Feed off organic matter in the sea ex: sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars Chordates (phylum Chordata) - Answer- Divided into invertebrates and vertebrates. Include bilaterally symmetrical animals that have a backbone composed of cartilage or bone supporting rod (notochord): long stiff tissue that supports the body Dorsal tubular nerve cord: provides framework from which the nervous system develops Pharyngeal pouches: serve functions related to feeding or respiration Tail: Formed in embryos and extending past the anus Phylum chordate is further divided into classes: - Answer- Class agnatha (jawless fish)" includes hagfish and lamprey Class Chondrichthyes: include cartilaginous fish like sharks and rays Class osteichthyes (bony fish) most diverse and abundant, include eels, salmon, carp, catfish, pufferfish Class Amphibia: include frogs, toads and salamanders Class Reptilia: include snakes, turtles, alligators and crocodiles Class Aves: includes birds Class Mammalia: includes mammals like humans