Cognition - Human Psychology - Lecture Slides, Slides of Psychology

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Cognition AP Psychology: Docsity.com Learning Targets: • AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: • Compare and contrast various cognitive processes: — effortful versus automatic processing; — deep versus shallow processing; — focused versus divided attention. • Describe and differentiate psychological and physiological systems of memory (e.g., short-term memory, procedural memory). • Outline the principles that underlie effective encoding, storage, and construction of memories. • Describe strategies for memory improvement. • Synthesize how biological, cognitive, and cultural factors converge to facilitate acquisition, development, and use of language. • Identify problem-solving strategies as well as factors that influence their effectiveness. • List the characteristics of creative thought and creative thinkers. • Identify key contributors in cognitive psychology (e.g., Noam Chomsky, Hermann Ebbinghaus, Wolfgang Köhler, Elizabeth Loftus, George A. Miller). Docsity.com Word List: • 1. abatjour - skylight or device to direct light into a room • 2. balneary – bath • 3. gambado - bound or spring of a horse; fantastic movement • 4. madapollam - fine cotton cloth • 5. xiphias - swordfish • 6. taeniacide - killing of tapeworms • 7. ocracy – government • 8. ignify – to burn • 9. nemorous – wooded • 10. hawkshaw - detective Docsity.com Discussion: • 1. How many words and definitions did you remember? • 2. What strategies did you use to remember the words and definitions? • 3. How would your strategy(s) have been different if you would have had more time? • 4. Do you think you’ll remember any of these words or definitions later today? Docsity.com Introduction: • “In order to profit from what you learn, you need to remember it.” • Memory – your capacity to register, store, and recover information over time. • Cognition – all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering information Docsity.com Types of Encoding: • Semantic Encoding – emphasizes the meaning of verbal input • Deep Processing – occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories. (elaboration) • Self-referent encoding - One of the best ways to facilitate later recall is to relate the new information to ourselves Docsity.com Three Stage Model: #3 • Atkinson-Shiffrin Three Stage Model of Memory – 3 different memory systems characterized by time frames (Sensory, STM and LTM) • Sensory Memory – information from external events is held just long enough to be perceived • Iconic Memory – an exact copy of visual information • Echoic Memory – auditory memory that lasts for about 4 seconds (long enough for us to hear the flow of information) Docsity.com Other Terms: • Most of our sensory memory is lost • Selective Attention – focus of awareness on a specific stimulus (small % of information is actually encoded) • Automatic Processing – unconscious encoding that happens (think social learning) • Parallel Processing – many things can be encoded at the same time • Effortful Processing – encoding that requires our attention and conscious effort Click the Pic for Brain Games! Docsity.com The three stages of the Atkinson-Shiffrin process of memory are: 1. Iconic, sensory, and procedural 2. Sensory, short term, and long term 3. Shallow, medium, and deep processing 4. Semantic, episodic, and procedural 5. Cerebellum, temporal lobe, and hippocampus Docsity.com According to the levels of processing theory of memory: 1. We remember items that are repeated once or twice 2. Sporadic rehearsal will encode items into our long-term memory 3. Deep processing involves elaborative rehearsal, ensuring encoding into long-term memory 4. We can only hold 7 items in our short term memory before it’s full 5. Input, output, and storage are the three levels Docsity.com Discussion Starter: Turn and talk • 1. What are some ways that seem to work for you when trying to memorize information? • 2. Did some one teach this to you or did you learn it on your own? • 3. Is it the school’s responsibility to teach you how to “remember” information? Docsity.com Long Term Memory: • Long Term Memory – relatively permanent and practically unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short-term memory may pass. (2 levels) • Level 1 – Explicit/declarative memory – our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize. • Subdivision 1– Semantic memory – facts and general knowledge • Subdivision 2 – Episodic memory – personally experienced events • Level 2 – Implicit memory – our LTM for skills and procedures to do things • Subdivision – Procedural memory – motor and cognitive skills (how we think and move) – we do these without thinking (tying shoes) Docsity.com Lesson Three: Organization of Memories • By the end of this lesson, I will be able to: • Outline the principles that underlie effective encoding, storage, and construction of memories. Docsity.com How is information in long-term memory organized? – Model #1 • Four Models: Hierarchies, Semantic networks, schemas, and connectionists networks. • 1. Hierarchies – systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific • Concepts – mental representations of related things (objects, events, etc. • Prototypes – typical examples of the concept (robin = bird) Docsity.com Model #4 - Connectionism • Connectionism – memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons • Neurons work together to process a single memory • Artificial intelligence designs have used this idea to create more lifelike simulations and games. (they can learn and adapt to new situations) Docsity.com Lesson Four: Biology of Long Term Memory and Retrieving Memory: • By the end of this lesson, I will be able to: • 1. Outline the principles that underlie effective encoding, storage, and construction of memories. • 2. Describe strategies for memory improvement. • 3. Synthesize how biological, cognitive, and cultural factors converge to facilitate acquisition, development, and use of language. Docsity.com Biology of Long-Term Memory: • Learning new information involves strengthening of neural connections at the synapses • Long term potentiation – involves an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapse within neural networks of long term memories. • Over time, this requires your brain to use much less “processing power” in order to remember something. Docsity.com Regions of the Brain and Memory: • Thalamus – helps to encode short term memories • Hippocampus – involved in putting information from STM to LTM • Destruction of the hippocampus = anterograde amnesia - the inability to put new information into LTM • Retrograde amnesia – memory loss for a segment of the past (blow to the head) – could result from Long term potentiation process being disturbed Docsity.com Lesson 4: Objective • By the end of this lesson, I will be able to: • 1. Describe strategies for memory improvement Docsity.com Retrieving Memories: • Retrieval – the process of getting information out of memory storage • Recognition – m/c questions • Recall – essay • When we need to remember something we often aim to reconstruct the idea in our mind Docsity.com What Affects Retrieval? • Our recall is best when we recall information in the same setting in which we encoded it (the environment becomes part of the memory) – context dependent memory • Example – taking a test in the same room that you learned the information (AP REVIEW?) • Mood may also play a factor – Mood congruence • State- dependent – drunk person remembers where they left something when their drunk instead of sober. Docsity.com Why do we forget? • 1. Failure to encode • 2. Decay of stored memories • 3. Inability to access stored memories • 4. Motivated forgetting Docsity.com #1: Failure to Encode Information: • Encoding failure results from sensory information never entering LTM because we did not pay attention to them. • Example: • 1. What is on the front of a dollar bill? • 2. What is on the back of a dollar bill? Docsity.com Two Types of Interference: • Proactive – something we learned earlier disrupts the recall of something we experience later (taught incorrectly) • Retroactive – new learning effects the recall of older information (new phone #s) Docsity.com Interference Application: • Confabulation – we fill in the missing details with what we want to remember (accident scene – if we were the cause) • Misinformation effect – occurs when we incorporate misleading information into our memory of an event (fight in school – rumors) • This is also called misattribution error (line up – weapon focus) Docsity.com So.. What Have We Learned? • 1. Over learning – keep practicing • 2. Relate material to ourselves • 3. Mnemonic devices • 4. Minimize interference • 5. Space out study sessions • 6. Frequent testing of knowledge • Question: Of all of these, which do you think you will use the most? Docsity.com Noam Chomsky: • Chomsky – our brains are prewired for a universal grammar of nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, and questions. • He developed the idea of a LAD – “language acquisition device” – in which grammar “switches” turn on as children are exposed to language. Docsity.com Chomsky Strikes Again! • Chomsky also believes in a critical period for language development. • He believes that if children are not exposed to language before adolescence, they will be unable or find it extremely difficult to acquire language (Genie) Docsity.com The Other Side: Skinner • B.F. Skinner felt that children learn language by association, reinforcement, and imitation. • Parents shape their children to speak – encouraging them to make sense of the babbling and “broken” speech • Children are encouraged to speak because they are praised for it and soon realize they can better interact with their environments. Docsity.com Combination Rules: • Grammar – each language has a system of rules that determine how sounds and words can be combined and used to communicate meaning. • Syntax – the set of rules that regulate the order in which words can be combined into sentences • “Yellow Balloon Big” Docsity.com Combination Rules: Cont. • Semantics – set of rules that help us to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences. • Sentences have: • 1. Surface structure – particular words or phrases • 2. Deep structure – underlying meaning (think politicians) • Example: “Helping the people in Darfur should be a priority for developed nations.” Docsity.com Language Acquisition Stages: • The following are the series of stages we all go through when trying to communicate: • 1. Babbling – production of phonemes (sounds) • 2. Holophrase (1st b-day) – one word conveys meaning (Go!) • 3. Telegraphic speech (age 2-3) – the use of one verb and one noun – “eat cookie” • Overgeneralization – child applies grammar rules without making appropriate exceptions (I goed to the store) Docsity.com Benjamin Whorf: • B.W. – Language guides and determines our thinking • Different languages cause people to view the world differently • People who speak more than one language report a different sense of themselves depending on the language they are speaking at the time • Criticism – language isn’t the only thing that affects us, the environment also plays a large role Docsity.com Metacognition: • Metacognition – thinking about how you think • This helps you reason through things in order to solve a problem. • Dunker’s candle box example (1945) Docsity.com So….how do we solve problems? • Most problem solving includes a series of steps • Algorithm – Slow, step by step procedure that guarantees a solution to many types of problems • Heuristics – Mental shortcuts (I before E, except after C) Docsity.com Mensa Test: • 1. Did you find this difficult? Why? • 2. What strategies did you use? • 3. Do you think it was more or less helpful working with someone? Did you use different strategies? Docsity.com Lesson Six: Continued • By the end of this lesson, I will be able to: • 1. Identify problem-solving strategies as well as factors that influence their effectiveness. • Discussion: • 1. What was your impression of the Mensa questions from yesterday? Docsity.com Obstacles to problem solving: • What can hinder our ability to solve a problem? • Fixation – Inability to look at a problem from a fresh perspective • We might be using a prior strategy that didn’t work • Functional fixedness – failure to use an object in an unusual way (picnic example) Docsity.com Framing and Advertising: • Framing – refers to the way a problem is posed (choose your words wisely) • Example – 90% fat free vs 10% fat (which are you more likely to buy? • Example – how many miles long is the Mississippi River? • A. 150 • B. 175 • C. 250 • D. 2500 • E. 5000 Docsity.com The fallibility of eyewitness accounts: • Part 1 • Part 2 • Discussion: Your Thoughts Docsity.com Lesson Seven: Objectives • By the end of this lesson, I will be able to: • 1. Identify problem- solving strategies as well as factors that influence their effectiveness. • 2. List the characteristics of creative thought and creative thinkers. Docsity.com Overconfidence Bias: • Overconfidence Bias – the tendency to underestimate the extent to which our judgments are incorrect. • While reading a section on problem solving errors, we may believe that we make errors less often than most people. Docsity.com Creativity and thinking: • Creativity – the ability to think about a problem or idea in new and unusual ways and come up with unconventional solutions • Convergent thinkers – use problem solving strategies directed toward one correct solution to a problem • Divergent thinkers – produce many answers to the same question (this is a characteristic of creativity) • Most studies show that brainstorming is the best strategy to use when faced with a problem. Docsity.com