Cognitive Development and Instructional Strategies in Education, Exams of Nursing

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development - Answer- Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over time. Four Stages of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development - Answer- Piaget proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages:

1. Sensorimotor (0-2)
2. Preoperational (2-7)
3. Concrete operational (7-11)
4. Formal operational (11-adulthood) How does Piaget think kids learn? - Answer- Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the environment. What do Piaget's stages mean? - Answer- The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. Piaget believed that all students pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage. Schemes - Answer- Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment. Assimilation - Answer- Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes. Accommodation - Answer- Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment. Adaptation - Answer- The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs. Equilibration - Answer- The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development. Disequilibrium - Answer- An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences. Sensorimotor Stage - Answer- The earliest stage (0-2) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop object permanence and progress from reflexive behavior to goal- directed behavior. Object Permanence - Answer- The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so they can think about them. Preoperational Stage - Answer- The second stage (2-7) of cognitive development in which children

learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered. Egocentric - Answer- Believing that everyone sees the world as you do. Conservation - Answer- The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties. Centration - Answer- Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision. Reversibility - Answer- The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point. Class Inclusion - Answer- The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking. Concrete Operational Stage - Answer- The third stage (7-11) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible. Formal Operational - Answer- The fourth stage of cognitive development (11-adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking. Inferred Reality - Answer- The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings. Seriation - Answer- Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect. Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression. Transivity - Answer- A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects. Inversion - Answer- A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. Reciprocity - Answer- A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking. Vygotsky - Answer- Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key ideas. Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development - Answer- He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas. Self-regulation - Answer- According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others. Sign Systems - Answer- Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate. Private Speech - Answer- Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions.

Zone of Proximal Development - Answer- Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other. Scaffolding - Answer- Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement. Cooperative Learning - Answer- Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking. Developmentally Appropriate Education - Answer- Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level. Psychosocial Theory - Answer- A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development. Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - Answer- Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage. Piaget's Theory of Moral Development - Answer- Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens. Heteronomous Morality - Answer- According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment. Autonomous Morality - Answer- According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic. Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning - Answer- Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning. Preconventional Level of Morality - Answer- Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration. Conventional Level of Morality - Answer- Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration. Postconventional Level of Morality - Answer- Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society. Socioeconomic Status (SES) - Answer- Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A measure of prestige within a social group. Ethnicity - Answer- A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity. Bilingual Education - Answer- Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English.

Four types of Bilingual Education - Answer- language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual Limited English Proficient (LEP) - Answer- A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning. English as a Second Language (ESL) - Answer- Instruction program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English. Multicultural Education - Answer- An educational approach designed to improve outcomes for all students of different cultural backgrounds and genders. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) - Answer- A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students. Individualized Education Program (IEP) - Answer- A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the student receives. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) - Answer- Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with non-disabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate. Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD) - Answer- A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education. Inclusion - Answer- An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers. Gifted and Talented (GT) - Answer- Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent. Learning Styles - Answer- A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors. Multiple Intelligences - Answer- An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?" The Eight Intelligences - Answer- 1) interpersonal 2) intrapersonal

3. musical-linguistic
4. spatial
5. logical mathematical
6. bodily-kinesthetic
7. linguistic
8. naturalist Direct Instruction - Answer- An instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons. The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson - Answer- 1) State learning objectives 2) Review prerequisites
9. Present new material
10. Conduct learning probes
11. Provide independent practice 6) Assessment and feedback

7. Review and provide distributed practice Mental Set - Answer- Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus. Wait Time - Answer- The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student. Research indicates teachers who wait approximately 3 seconds after asking a question get better results that teachers who wait less (Tobin, 1986). Calling Order - Answer- The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question. Choral Response - Answer- Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback. Time-on-Task - Answer- The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student. Objective - Answer- The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn. Overt/Covert Behavior - Answer- Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking. Pacing - Answer- The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding. Smoothness - Answer- The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning. Momentum - Answer- The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction. Reinforcement - Answer- The use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Shaping - Answer- The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal. Massed Practice - Answer- A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time. Distributed Practice - Answer- A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently. Retention - Answer- The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information. Top-Down Processing - Answer- A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations. Motivation - Answer- An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time.

Intrinsic incentive - Answer- internal or natural desire or interest Extrinsic incentive - Answer- an environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude Classical Conditioning - Answer- The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response. Operant Conditioning - Answer- The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. Flexible Grouping - Answer- The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction. Classroom Climate - Answer- The way a classroom feels to the participants. Conflict Contaminants - Answer- Conditions in which negative conflict grows. Conflict Resolution - Answer- Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Answer- An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs includes: - Answer- 1) Survival 2) Safety

3. Belonging
4. Self-Esteem
5. Intellectual Achievement
6. Aesthetic Appreciation
7. Self-Actualization Cambourne's Conditions for Learning - Answer- Characteristics of the environment that support learning. Cambourne's Conditions for Learning include: - Answer- 1) Immersion 2) Demonstration
8. Expectation
9. Responsibility
10. Employment
11. Approximation
12. Engagement Withitness - Answer- The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior. Overlapping - Answer- A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity. Principle of Least Intervention - Answer- Correcting misbehavior by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work. Home Contingency - Answer- A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well- specified standards of behavior. Rules - Answer- Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or

standards of behavior. Procedures - Answer- Communicated expectations for specific student behavior. Group Contingency - Answer- A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures. Instructional Strategy - Answer- A plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives. Assessment - Answer- A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning. Evaluation - Answer- A formal measurement and judgement of student performance or behavior. Formative Assessment - Answer- Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction. Summative Assessment - Answer- Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery. Reliability - Answer- The consistency of test results over time. Validity - Answer- The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure. Norm-referenced Test - Answer- A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores. Criterion-referenced Test - Answer- A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. (STAAR, TAKS) Measurement-based Assessment - Answer- Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers. Performance-based Assessment - Answer- An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation. Authentic Assessment - Answer- Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation. Portfolio - Answer- An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning. Parallel Play - Answer- Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence. Bloom's Taxonomy - Answer- An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex. Bloom's Taxonomy (levels) - Answer- 1) Knowledge 2) Comprehension

3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Sythesis

6. Evaluation Primacy Effect - Answer- The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items. Recency Effect - Answer- The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items. Metacognition - Answer- Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn. Prior Knowledge - Answer- Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connections for learning. Risk-Free Environment - Answer- A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued. Self-Concept - Answer- One's perception of oneself. Self-Efficacy - Answer- The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something. Transfer - Answer- The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area. Reflective Practice - Answer- is a term which encompasses ways teachers may self- assess teaching practices and critically examine their work. Through reflection, teachers analyze lessons and teaching practices, which helps them develop as professionals. ELL students must acquire: - Answer- both social and academic language proficiency in English. Intermediate level of reading proficiency - Answer- The learner will have the ability to read and understand simple, high-frequency English used in routine academic and social contexts. The learner should be able to seek clarification from the teacher in English. Due Process - Answer- describes the parents' rights to disagree with an IEP or an evaluation of their child's abilities. Disagreements may be settled through an impartial due process hearing presided over by an officer appointed by the state. Advanced level of English proficieny - Answer- can participate in most writing activities, with second-language acquisition support. Uses predominately grade-appropriate English to write, using some detail. With support from the teacher, has an emerging ability to express herself using self- generated, connected text Occasionally exhibits second-language acquisition errors. James Marcia - Answer- James Marcia is a Canadian developmental psychologist who expanded on Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. His research and writings have largely focused on adolescent development. His work was to identify and classify processes that adolescents go through when they experience identity crises. The four processes that Marcia defined are: - Answer- Foreclosure, Identity Diffusion, Moratorium, and Identity Achievement. Foreclosure - Answer- In this state, an adolescent may blindly accept whatever ideology or values system that has been given to them from their parents or family members. This indicates a "pseudo-identity" that is too rigid or fixed to meet life's future crises.

Identity Diffusion - Answer- This state is a struggle of identity that is marked by no real progress in deciding an occupation or ideology of one's own. There is no commitment to anything or ability to develop one's sense of self. An individual may have had an identity crisis, but it would not have been resolved. Moratorium - Answer- This state marks little real commitment to an ideology or occupation but is also a state of experimentation. It also marks an ongoing identity crisis and the examination of alternate life choices. Identity Achievement - Answer- This state is the state of clarity and of development of one's identity. It marks a commitment to an ideology or more direction in terms of occupational goals. These decisions have been autonomously made and developed by a formed ego identity. Carol Gilligan - Answer- Carol Gilligan was born on November 28, 1936, in New York City. She has received her doctorate degree in social psychology from Harvard University in 1964 and began teaching at Harvard in 1967. Then in 1970 she became a research assistant for the great theorist of moral development, Lawrence Kohlberg. Gilligan's Stages of the Ethic of Care - Answer- Three stages: Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional Preconventional (Gilligan) - Answer- Goal is individual survival Conventional (Gilligan) - Answer- Self sacrifice is goodness Postconventional (Gilligan) - Answer- Principle of nonviolence (Do not hurt self or others) Piaget Cognitive Characteristics - Answer- Piaget's four stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development are: Sensorimotor. Birth through ages 18-24 months Preoperational. Toddlerhood (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7) Concrete operational. Ages 7 to 12 Formal operational. Adolescence through adulthood Erikson Psychosocial Stages - Answer- 1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)

2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will) 3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose) 4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)
3. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) 6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)
4. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care) 8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom) Kohlberg Moral stages - Answer- Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality:At the pre- conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don't have a personal code of morality Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints. Level 2 - Conventional morality: At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.

• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt. Level 3 - Post-conventional morality:Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear cut. For example, in Heinz's dilemma the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage. Human development physical stages - Answer- 1.- Prebirth: Potential. 2.- Birth: Hope - When a child is born, 3.- Infancy (Ages 0-3): Vitality - The infant is a vibrant and seemingly unlimited source of energy. 4.- Early Childhood (Ages 3-6): Playfulness - When young children play, they recreate the world anew. 5.- Middle Childhood (Ages 6-8): Imagination 6.- Late Childhood (Ages 9-11): Ingenuity. 7.-Adolescence (Ages 12-20): Passion - 8.- Early Adulthood (Ages 20-35): Enterprise - 9.-Midlife (Ages 35-50): Contemplation 10.- Mature Adulthood (Ages 50-80): Benevolence 11.- Late Adulthood (Age 80+): Wisdom 12.-Death & Dying: Life - Developmental characteristics of EC-6 Learners - Answer- Physical Pre-K-Kindergarten Active, motor development, need frequent bathroom breaks, developing large muscles, developing eye-hand coordination, may experience difficulty in focus eyes. Grade 1- 4 Tend to be more active, need to move about often, need frequent breaks, need rest periods, better large muscle control, may be farsighted, may be prone to accidents. Grade 5- 6 The beginning of noticeable differences in height between sexes, able to maintain focus for longer periods of time, less restless, more control of both fine and large muscles, the beginning signs of sexual masturbation. Cognitive Pre-K-Kindergarten Preoperational, short attention span, self-regulating patterns of language. Grade 1- 4

Move from preoperational to Concrete need a variety of activities, ready to learn. Grade 5- 6 Beginning to move to abstract thinking, still rely on hands-on learning to understand concept optimally. Social Pre-K-Kindergarten Initiative versus guilt, frequent changes in friends, parallel play, enjoy sharing time, need explorations and investigations, developing skills of choice and independence. Grade 1- 4 Industry versus inferiority, more selective in choosing friends, prefers organized games, focus on rules, may argue frequently, enjoy talking, may tattletale. Grade 5- 6 Interested in peer groups, still in industry versus inferiority stages. Emotional Pre-K-Kindergarten Preconventional, frequent but brief disagreements, awareness of sex roles, emotions readily shown, tends to be teacher pleasers, need firm limits with consistency. Grade 1- 4 Sensitive to criticism and rejection, eager to please, sensitive to others. Grade 5- 6 More sensitive to opinion of peer group, the beginning stage of infatuation, less reliance on parents. Maslow's Hierarchy stages - Answer- 1.- Basic Human Needs met. 2.- Safety Needs. 3.- Sense of belonging. 4.- Sense of Self- Worth.

5. Self-Actualization needs Howard Gardner - Answer- Multiple Intelligences Gardner's Multiple Intelligences 1. Verbal-linguistic intelligence (well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words) 2. Logical-mathematical intelligence (ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns) 3. Spatial-visual intelligence (capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly) 4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (ability to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully) *5. Musical intelligences *(ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber) 6. Interpersonal intelligence (capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and desires of others) 7. Intrapersonal (capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes) 8. Naturalist intelligence (ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in

nature) 9. Existential intelligence (sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence such as, What is the meaning of life? Why do we die? How did we get here? ( manipulatives - Answer- concrete items used to assist students as they develop or learn a concept. Levels of Questions in Bloom's Taxonomy - Answer- Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Knowledge - Answer- This is the lowest level of questions and requires students to recall information. Knowledge questions usually require students to identify information in basically the same form it was presented. Some examples of knowledge questions include ... "What is the biggest city in Japan?" "Who wrote War and Peace?" "How many ounces in a pound?" Words often used in knowledge questions include know, who, define, what, name, where, list, and when. Comprehension - Answer- Simply stated, comprehension is the way in which ideas are organized into categories. Comprehension questions are those that ask students to take several bits of information and put them into a single category or grouping. These questions go beyond simple recall and require students to combine data together. Some examples of comprehension questions include ... "How would you illustrate the water cycle?" "What is the main idea of this story?" "If I put these three blocks together, what shape do they form?" Words often used in comprehension questions include describe, use your own words, outline, explain, discuss, and compare. Application - Answer- At this level, teachers ask students to take information they already know and apply it to a new situation. In other words, they must use their knowledge to determine a correct response. Some examples of application questions include ... "How would you use your knowledge of latitude and longitude to locate Greenland?" "What happens when you multiply each of these numbers by nine?"

"If you had eight inches of water in your basement and a hose, how would you use the hose to get the water out?" Words often used in application questions include apply, manipulate, put to use, employ, dramatize, demonstrate, interpret, and choose. Analysis - Answer- An analysis question is one that asks a student to break down something into its component parts. To analyze requires students to identify reasons, causes, or motives and reach conclusions or generalizations. Some examples of analysis questions include ... "What are some of the factors that cause rust?" "Why did the United States go to war with England?" "Why do we call all these animals mammals?" Words often used in analysis questions include analyze, why, take apart, diagram, draw conclusions, simplify, distinguish, and survey. Synthesis - Answer- Synthesis questions challenge students to engage in creative and original thinking. These questions invite students to produce original ideas and solve problems. There's always a variety of potential responses to synthesis questions. Some examples of synthesis questions include ... "How would you assemble these items to create a windmill?" "How would your life be different if you could breathe under water?" "Construct a tower one foot tall using only four blocks." "Put these words together to form a complete sentence." Words often used in synthesis questions include compose, construct, design, revise, create, formulate, produce, and plan. Evaluation - Answer- Evaluation requires an individual to make a judgment about something. We are asked to judge the value of an idea, a candidate, a work of art, or a solution to a problem. When students are engaged in decision-making and problem- solving, they should be thinking at this level. Evaluation questions do not have single right answers. Some examples of evaluation questions include ... "What do you think about your work so far?" "What story did you like the best?" "Do you think that the pioneers did the right thing?" "Why do you think Benjamin Franklin is so famous?" Words often used in evaluation questions include judge, rate, assess, evaluate, What is the best ..., value, criticize, and compare. ability grouping - Answer- A type of grouping where students are placed together according to their skill level, in high, middle or low groups. The TExES exam does not like this practice as research indicates that it is not very effective and has some negative consequences.

abstract - Answer- Characterized only in thought; non-concrete. Considered apart from concrete existence.Not applied or practical; theoretical. active engagement - Answer- Student are actively participating in an activity in a meaningful, hands-on way. This type of activity is more likely to help students to understand and remember the concept or lesson. acitve listening - Answer- Paying close attention to what is currently being said. Often the listener is silently making mental notes and focusing on not just the content, but also any emotional content, as well, and connecting what is being said to prior knowledge and experience. age appropriate - Answer- Instructional lessons, activities, etc, that fit the development, language and ability level of the child. This is not necessarily the same thing as developmentally appropriate, since a child's developmental level may not be the same as his/her age level. alternative assessment - Answer- A type of evaluation other than a conventional test. It is sometimes used with students who cannot take a conventional test for some reason or for whom a conventional test is not an accurate assessment of their knowledge or ability. analysis - Answer- Taking knowledge apart to understand how it fits together. It is one of the higher order thinking skills. application - Answer- Applying or using what is known to solve an actual problem. Admission, Review, and Dismissal (ARD) Committee - Answer- In Texas a team that determines a student's eligibility for special education services, reviews the eligibility on a regular basis, and determines an appropriate individual education plan for the student. assessment - Answer- S way of monitoring progress; the act of testing, determining an evaluation of a particular skill or content area; includes many different approaches and formats, formal, informal and authentic evaluation procedures. assimilation (Piaget) - Answer- According to Piaget this is the process of fitting new ideas or concepts into existing ideas or concepts. It suggests that a child may change or alter what he perceives in the outside world in order to fit his internal world. authentic assessment - Answer- Using evaluations procedures that measure exactly what learning has occurred. It literally means "real" and usually consists of a product that the student produces to demonstrate knowledge or mastery of a skill. autonomy - Answer- The process of becoming independent and regulating one's own behavior. Bloom's Taxonomy - Answer- Proposed by Benjamin Bloom this is a classification tool developed to categorize learning from low level thinking to very high level thinking. comprehension - Answer- Understanding and knowledge something, whether it is a concept, content information, behavior, etc. It is often used in relation to reading (reading comprehension) to indicate that a reader remembers and understands what was read. But, it is not limited exclusively to reading. constructivism - Answer- An instructional approach based on the theory on the idea that children build understanding by an active learning process. Students build their own learning and knowledge by exploration, discovery and questioning. content validity - Answer- How well a test measures what is was designed to measure.

convergent thinking - Answer- Involves combining or joining different ideas together Based on elements these ideas have in common. In short, it means putting the different pieces of a topic back together in some organized, structured and understandable fashion. Convergent thinking, then, is an essential part of the outlining and organizing process. deductive reasoning - Answer- The process of thinking from general terms to specific terms; framing thinks so as to eliminate ideas or possibilities one by one English as a Second Language (ESL) - Answer- A program for teaching the English language to children whose first language is not English, although in practice it is much more comprehensive than this and includes the teaching of academic content to students with limited English proficiency. It involves effective instructional strategies for teaching English to non-native speakers. ethical behavior - Answer- Acting in the highest moral principles and values. For educators in Texas it means behavior and practices that conform to the Texas Educators' Code of Ethics evaluation - Answer- Critical thinking that involves making and supporting judgments. This is one of the higher order thinking skills in Bloom's Taxonomy. extrinsic motivation - Answer- Wanting to do something, behaving in a certain way or achieving something because of some type of external reward. The reward could be something tangible, i.e. money, food, etc. or it could be intangible, i.e. praise, better grade, etc. formal assessment - Answer- Measuring knowledge or skill acquistion by means of a standardized test, very often using a commercially published test, although it doesn't have to be commercially published to be formal, but it would need to be standardized. formative assessment - Answer- Monitoring progress before and during learning in order to guide any necessary adjustments and the pace of learning. Formative assessment gives teh teacher inforamtion regarding how well students are understanding a particular concept or skill in order to determine the effectiveness of the instruction. It is done on an ongoing basis during instruction. graphic organizers - Answer- A type of visual displaly, chart, graphic, etc. that helps students with planning, organizing, connecting, engaging and evaluating their larning. They are tools that assist teachers and students in the learning process. They take many forms, venn diagrams, semantic maps, timelines, KWL charts, story maps, outlines, etc. grouping - Answer- Placing students together in order to for a lesson or other learning or instructional activity. Groupins is sometimes done on the basis of a single student characteristic, such as ability or ethnicity and when done on that basis it is not very effective or desirable. hands-on activities - Answer- activities designed so that they require students to get actively engaged in the learning activity in a physical way. higher oder questions - Answer- questions that engage the child in more complex cogniive skills. It is usually used to refer to thinking process that are more sophisticated and on the upper level of Bloom's Taxonomy. instructional objectives - Answer- Specific and usually, but not always, written statements regardng the exact goals or desired student outcomes for a lesson or other learning activitiy. In other words, what the teacher hopes or expects to accomplish with the lesson. instructional strategy - Answer- A plan, tool, technique or approach for teaching. the mehtodology and process the teacher uses to help students understand and learn the instructional objectives.

accommodation - Answer- In the theories of Jean Piaget: the modification of internal representations in order to accommodate a changing knowledge of reality. It refers to an important aspect of learning for young children, as they alter and adjust existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. accountability - Answer- Holding schools responsible for what students learn. It is an important concept behind the high stakes testing movement in schools. acculturation - Answer- The adoption of the behavior patterns of the surrounding culture. advanced organizers - Answer- A framework for understanding the material to be taught, which is introduced prior to the lesson. They help orient students to the lesson by helping them to connect the new knowledge to prio knowledge and to create an understanding of how the new knowledge fits it with existing knowledge. affective domain - Answer- Attitudinal and emotional areas of learning, such as values and feelings. affective objectives - Answer- Learning objectives that focus on values, feeling, beliefs and emotions. Aptitude Test - Answer- A test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. assertive discipline - Answer- Classroom management approach (Leo Canter) based on establishing clear limits and expectations, insisting on acceptable student behavior and delivering appropriate consequences when rules are broken. assimilation - Answer- Process of changing one's own culture to the dominant cultural norms. at risk students - Answer- A term used to refer to children who are not currently identified as handicapped or disabled but who are considered to have greater than usual chance of school success due to any number of factors such as environment, prior instruction, motivation, etc.. behavior disorder - Answer- Problem when behavior deviates so much from appropriate behaviors for the child's age group that it significantly interferes with child leanring, growth and development. behavior objective - Answer- A form for writing an instructional objective that emphasizes precision and careful delineation of expected student behaviors, the testing situation and the desired performance criterion. bottom-up processing - Answer- Starting with skills and moving to whole knowledge, starting with parts and working toward the whole. An example is learning sounds, then words, then sentences, etc. Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education - Answer- A landmark decision of the United States Supreme court that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students and denying black children equal educational opportunities unconstitutional. bilingual education - Answer- Second language instruction in which students are instructed in academic subject areas in their native language while simultaneously being taught to speak and write in the second language. brainstorming - Answer- An uncritical, non-evaluative process of generating associated ideas. The focus on brainstorming is the quantity of ideas and not necessarily their quality, as a starting point to examining and analyzing ideas.

Jerome Bruner - Answer- Discovery learning and constructivism. He wrote that the aim of education should be to create autonomous learners. He proposed three modes of representation: Enactive representation (action-based); Iconic representation (image- based); and Symbolic representation (language-based) Chapter 1- Educational Improvement Act - Answer- The purpose of this federal law is to provide financial assistance to State and local educational agencies to meet the special educational needs of educationally deprived children. It is recognized, generally, as the funding source for rememdial math and reading programs in school. classical conditioning - Answer- Conditioning that pairs a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that evokes a reflex (first identified by Pavlov). For instance, dogs learn to associate a bell with feeding time, so when they hear the bell they immediately start to salivate becasue they have been conditioned to do so. classroom management - Answer- Techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behavior problems. cognitive domain - Answer- As described by Benjamin Bloom, this part of the brain that includes content knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts and concepts that serve developing intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, starting from the simplest behavior (recalling facts) to the most complex (Evaluation). compensatory education - Answer- Programs designed to prevent or remediate learning problems among students from lower socioeconomic status communities. In other words, to compensate for factors that have prevented the students from learning and achieving succes in school. competency based teacher education - Answer- The general process by which the state provides a credential to an individual. Certification is based on the individual demonstrating and documenting achievment and success on specific criterial or competencies. conservation - Answer- The concept or understandign (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. According to Piaget, young children do not have this concept until the moved out of the concrete operational stage of development. cooperative learning - Answer- Approach to instruction in which students work with a small group of peers to achieve a common goal and help one another learn. core curriculum - Answer- Acommon course of study for all students often called for by essentialist reforms in the 1980's criterion referenced test - Answer- A test that describes the specific types of skills, tasks, or knowledge of an individual relative to a well-defined mastery criterion. The content of criterion- referenced tests is limited to certain specified objectives. The student's perforamnce on this type of test helps the teacher to determine the specific criteria or skills on which the student needs help. critical thinking - Answer- The intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. cultural pluralism - Answer- A condition in which many cultures coexist within a society and still

maintain their cultural uniqueness. curriculum - Answer- All the courses of study offered by an educational institution decentralization - Answer- A process whereby a higher central source of responsibility and authority assign certain responsibility and authority to a subordinate position. Example: site-based management. Allowing lower level units of an organization make many of their own decisions. De Facto Segregation - Answer- segregation "by fact," i.e., segregation that results from such factors as housing patterns rather than law. De Jure Segregation - Answer- Segregation that is imposed by law. diagnostic test - Answer- A test that helps the teacher to determine students areas of weakness. It helps to identify specific areas, skills or knowledge that are problems for the student. discovery learning - Answer- A constructivist approach. A teaching strategy that allows students to learn by their own active exploration of a concep. Students begin learning with an activity designed to lead them to particular concepts or conclusions. Students acquire basic and advanced knowledge in random order. (Bruner's approach) disequilibration - Answer- In Piaget's theory, the "out of balance" state that occurs when a person realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation. New knowledge has be to integrated with the old knoweldge to restore balance. divergent thinker - Answer- An open ended type of thinking that extends in different directions and considers multiple answers to a question. An instructional activity or question that taps into divergent thinking is one that is likely to result in the widest variety of student answers, responses or products. due process - Answer- A judicial requirement that enacted laws may not contain provisions that result in the unfair, arbitrary, or unreasonable treatment of an individual. equilibration - Answer- Piaget's term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation. Erik Erickson - Answer- A neo-Freudian psychologist that hypothesized that people f pass through 8 social development stages from infancy to old age. Each challenge has an outcome that affects a person's social and personality development.

1. Infancy: Birth to 18 Months Ego Development Outcome: Trust vs. Mistrust Basic strength: Drive and Hope
2. Early Childhood: 18 Months to 3 Years Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage, and Will
3. Play Age: 3 to 5 Years Ego Development Outcome: Initiative vs. Guilt Basic Strength: Purpose
4. School Age: 6 to 12 Years Ego Development Outcome: Industry vs. Inferiority Basic Strengths: Method and Competence
5. Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years Ego Development Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion Basic Strengths: Devotion and Fidelity
6. Young Adulthood: 18 to 35 Ego Development Outcome: Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation Basic Strengths: Affiliation and Love
7. Middle Adulthood: 35 to 55 or 65 Ego Development Outcome: Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation Basic Strengths: Production and Care
8. Late Adulthood: 55 or 65 to Death Ego Development Outcome: Integrity vs. Despair Basic Strengths: Wisdom

ethnic group - Answer- A group of people of the same race or nationality who share a distinctive culture. extinction - Answer- A conditioning process in which the reinforcer is removed and a conditioned response becomes independent of the conditioned stimulus. In other words, the behavior remains even after the reinforcer that originally encouraged the behavior has been stopped or removed. field independent learners - Answer- Students who are not as dependent on the teacher, other students and the learning environment. field dependent learners - Answer- Students who learn best with teacher and peer interaction and who rely heavily on the learning environment. fixed interval schedule - Answer- In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. fixed ratio schedule - Answer- Schedule of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained. generalization - Answer- Transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus (psychology). A skill or behavior learned in one context, situation or environment is also used and implemented in different situatiosn or environments. William Glasser - Answer- The developer of reality therapy and choice theory. His ideas, focus on personal choice, personal responsibility and personal transformation, grade equivalent score - Answer- Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade. Other words, comparing a students performance on a standardized assessment to the grade level of other students with similar performance. Head Start - Answer- A federally funded preschool program for children from low-income families that also provides healthcare, nutrition services, and social services( part of the economic opportunity act of 1964 during the Johnson administration). heuristics - Answer- Sets of strategies, rather than strict rules, that act as guidelines for discovery- oriented problem solving. hidden curriculum - Answer- Values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling. refers to the unspoken and unofficial norms, behaviors, and values that kids learn at school in addition to the official curriculum of math, reading, science, and so on. These can include expectations about how to act in public (standing in line), how to interact with non-parental authority figures, and messages about social hierarchies, and so on. homogeneous grouping - Answer- An educational practice in which students of similar abilities are placed within the same instructional groups. Research indicates that it is an ineffective instructional approach that can result in low student self-esteem and usually does not result in improved student learning. House Bill 72 - Answer- Series of education reforms in TX headed by Ross Perot that gave higher teacher salaries, more teacher requirements, and the no pass no play rule. I-Message - Answer- Clear nonaccusatory statement of how something is affecting you practically and emotionally.

Individual Education Program (IEP) - Answer- A written educational plan for special needs students developed by professionals and the child's parent. Describes education related services developed for each student with a disability. It is a requirement of the IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act). inductive reasoning - Answer- Reasoning from detailed facts to general principles. It constructs or evaluates general propositions that are derived from specific examples. Inductive reasoning contrasts with deductive reasoning, in which specific examples are derived from general propositions. integration - Answer- Process of bringing people of different races in schools together rather than in separate schools or settings. intrinsic motivation - Answer- A desire to do something that comes from within oneself. Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner. Lawrence Kohlberg - Answer- Theorist who claimed individuals go through a series of stages in the process of moral development. Kohlberg's theory of moral development outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Lau vs. Nichols - Answer- Supreme Court rule that schools that do not provide special help for children with limited English are limiting their civil rights.This is landmark legislation for bilingual education in the U.S.(1974). The Supreme Court ruled that school districts must help non-English speaking students learn English. Learning center - Answer- A specific area in the classroom where students can work at their own ability levels and where materials and activities may be used to develop knowledge in a given subject area(s). learning disability - Answer- A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involving understanding or in using language, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to speak, think, listen, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. Students diagnosed with a learning disability compose almost half of all students placed in special education programs in schools. least restrictive environment - Answer- A legal requirement that children with disabilities be educated with their non disabled peers to the greatest extent possible. The says the students with disabilities should be separated from their age level peers only when their instructional needs can not be met in the general education setting. mainstreaming - Answer- The practice of educating students with special needs in regular classes during specific time periods based on their skills. Abraham Maslow - Answer- Theory: "Hierarchy of Needs" Maslow is known for establishing a theory of a hierarchy of human needs in which certain lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs can be met. Lower level needs consist of food and safety, and belonging and higher level needs consist of esteem, independence and self- actualization (personal growth and fulfillment). mastery instruction/learning - Answer- An approach in which the form of instruction and the time available for learning are based on the individual needs of the student. instructional objectives are defined and taught directly. Immediate feedback is provided to the student. The teacher reteaches concepts until the student has mastered them before moving on to the next concepts. mean - Answer- The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then

dividing by the number of scores. median - Answer- The score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores. mental retardation - Answer- A condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score (IQ) below 70 and difficulty in adapting behavior consists with IQ. The term has been changed to intellectual disability. metacognition - Answer- Literally means "thinking about thinking." It involves activities such as planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating progress toward the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature. It plays a critical role in successful learning mode - Answer- The most frequently occurring score in a distribution; it is the simplest measure of central tendency to determine. Morrill Act - Answer- (1862) Federal law that gave land to western states to build agricultural and engineering colleges. multicultural education - Answer- Instruction that integrates throughout the curriculum the perspectives and experiences of numerous cultural groups. Nation At Risk - Answer- 1983 National Commission report calling for extensive educational reforms, including more academic course requirements, more stringent college entrance requirements, upgraded and updated textbooks, and longer school days and year. norm referenced test - Answer- A test designed to indicate how an individual performs in relation to a comparison of grade/age level peers. An IQ test is an example of this. normal curve - Answer- A graph of frequency distribution shaped like a symmetrical, bell- shaped curve; a graph of normal distribution. It demonstrates the percentage of people having varying degrees of a certain characteristic ( such as height or IQ) that is normally distributed in the population. Northwest Ordinance - Answer- The law that advocated some sort of elementary education should be provided free, at public expense and under public control, for everyone who could not afford or did not want private schooling. operant conditioning - Answer- Learning that is strengthened when behavior is followed by positive reinforcement. Jean Piaget - Answer- Swiss psychologist remembered for his studies of cognitive development in children (1896-1980) in which he described stages that children go through during cognitive development. Certain skills and abilities are only developed when students have developed to the appropriate stage. Some concepts associated with his theory are assimilation, accommodation, equilibrium, and schema. programmed instruction - Answer- A set of instructional materials that students can use to teach themselves about a particular topic. It features self-pacing, immediate feedback, and division of materials into small units (frames). progressivism - Answer- A form of educational philosophy that believes that individuality, progress, and change are fundamental to one's education. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, progressivists center their curricula on the needs, experiences, interests, and abilities of students.

punishment - Answer- Outcome or consequence of a behavior that weakens the probability of the behavior. Punishment is usually in the form of an aversive, or unpleasant consequence. reinforcement - Answer- A stimulus that strengthens or increases a desired behavior. While punishment results in a decrease or weakening of undesirable behavior, reinforcement results in the strengthening or increase of the desired behavior. reliability - Answer- The ability of a test to yield nearly the same score when the same people are tested and then retested on the same test or an alternative form of the test. It is related to the concept of consistency. remediation - Answer- An educational program designed to teach a person to overcome an academic weakness or need through additional and or specialized services and education. schemata - Answer- In cognitive learning, large, basic units for organizing information. Schemata serve as guides describing what to expect in a given situation, how elements should fit together, the usual relationships among elements, etc. A schema is like a model, framework or stereotype. school board - Answer- The governing body of a school district responsible for the development or approval of educational policies, approval of the budget, hiring of the superintendent, and other personnel matters. self fulfilling prophecy - Answer- A phenomenon whereby observers bring about what they expect to happen or what they perceive to be true. shaping - Answer- An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. It is used when the student's present level of the behavior is a long way from the desired level. B. F. Skinner - Answer- An American psychologist known for his research in the area of learning and conditioning. He is known as the "father" of behavioral theory, that behavior change is accomplished through the appropriate use of reinforcement. Smith Hughes Act - Answer- Legislation for government funding to go to public schools to provide vocational support and education in 1917. socioeconomic status (SES) - Answer- A person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, place of residence, and other factors. Socratic Method - Answer- The method of teaching used by the Greek philosopher Socrates. It employs a question-and-answer format to lead pupils to see things for themselves by using their own reason. spiral curriculum - Answer- Bruner's process of building on a student's previous kowledge to introduce new and broader concepts that are related. standard deviation - Answer- A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score (the square root of the variance). standardized test - Answer- A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals. stanine - Answer- Whole-number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raaw scores. Stanine scores combine some of the properties of percentile ranks with some of the

properties of standard scores. student centered (learner centered) - Answer- Instruction which considers the ability and needs of the student in the planning process. Instruction focuses on the outcomes or behaviors expected and desired by the learners. summative evaluation - Answer- Evaluation conducted after instruction to assess students' final achievement. time on task - Answer- Time spent actively engaged in learning the task at hand. time out - Answer- A disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and removed from social reinforcement and interaction for a specified time (usually one minute for each year old the child's age). tracking - Answer- The process of monitoring a student's achievement over a period of time, usually years. This information is often used for placement and instructional purposes. It can also refer to the process of placing students in specifically focused educational programs (an "academic track," or a "vocational track") and requiring them to remain in those programs. transfer - Answer- Occurs when a student connects the new knowledge being presented to familiar concepts. values-centered curriculum - Answer- Places special emphasis on moral and ethical issue. More popularly known as character education. Portfolio - Answer- A collection of examples of a person's work. For example, samples of products indicating an individual's proficiency and skill in performing a certain type of work. Annual Teacher Appraisal - Answer- In Texas these are required to support and assist teachers in identifying areas of needed approval in teaching so that they can obtain appropriate professional development. Texas Education Agency (TEA) - Answer- The state agency in Texas that has administrative and supervisory authority over the operation of public schools. Implements laws passed by the legislature and establishes policies and procedures for implement laws and other legal requirements. Workstations - Answer- An instructional approach that establishes instructional areas where students work individually or in small groups to work independently on instructional tasks and projects. Rubric - Answer- An assessment method in which a form is developed specifying the requirement elements and components of an assignment, along with the points awarded for meeting various levels of quality for the individual components. It is a way of evaluating assignments consisting of some type of product (a paper, a project). It also allows students to know in advance the criteria by which the assignment will be evaluated. Syntax - Answer- A major component of grammar, it is the rules by which words are put together in the right form and order to appropriately form sentences, phrases and clauses. Semantics - Answer- The meaning of words, closely related to the concept of vocabulary. The relationship between and among words and their various meanings. Baseline - Answer- Means the beginning point. When used with a word like "data" or "assessment"

it refers to where a student was before beginning a lesson or intervention. Gestalt - Answer- Means "unified whole." It refers to theories of visual perception developed by German psychologists in the 1920s. It describes how people tend to organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes when certain principles are applied. These principles are: Similarity, Anomaly (difference), Continuation, Closure, Proximity, Figure and Ground. Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) - Answer- A federal law that governs student confidentiality in schools. It requires that schools not divulge, reveal or share any personally identifiable information about a student or his/her family, unless it is with another school employee who needs the information to work with the student. An exception is the publishing of student directory information. Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) - Answer- A component of an IEP it is developed for students with special behavior problems and identifies the strategies and steps school personnel will use with the student to address the behavior. Reflection - Answer- Thinking about something one has done or something that has been done as a means of analyzing its effectiveness and planning any needed changes or alterations for the future. Elaboration - Answer- To expand or build upon something that was done or said. Scaffolding - Answer- Structured (but not intrusive) intervention and supports that allows the child to access functions and activities that are not available when working alone. The interventions and supports are gradually removed until the child is doing the task on his or her own. Direct instruction - Answer- An instructional approach to academic subjects that emphasizes the use of carefully sequenced steps that include demonstration, modeling, guided practice, and independent application. Concept - Answer- A type of graphic organizer that provides a visual picture to assist in understanding a concept or term. Authentic artifact - Answer- A real example or item, such as an actual piece of clothing worn in the civil war, or an actual letter from an historical figure, or an actual plant or mineral being discussed in science class. Abstract thinking - Answer- A level of thinking about things that is removed from the facts of the "here and now", and from specific examples of the things or concepts being thought about. Abstract thinkers are able to reflect on events and ideas, and on attributes and relationships separate from the objects that have those attributes or share those relationships. Concrete thinking - Answer- Thought derived from the senses, which reflects experience rather than abstract reasoning. In other words, believes and understands only what is observed. In Piaget's classification this stage occurs between 7 and 11 years of age, is preceded by syncretic thinking, and is followed by abstract thinking Syncretic thinking - Answer- The attempted reconciliation, melding or union of different or opposing principles, practices, or parties, as in philosophy or religion. In language it can also mean the merging of two or more originally different inflectional forms. Inclusion classroom - Answer- A classroom where students with disabilities are taught together with their nondisabled peers.

Positive reinforcement - Answer- The strengthening of desired behavior by giving the individual something they want, i.e. praise, extra points, attention, etc. Negative reinforcement - Answer- The strengthening of desired behavior by taking away something the individual doesn't want, i.e. staying in class for recess, ignoring them, etc. Wait time (or wait and think time) - Answer- Refers to pausing after asking a student a question to give him or her time to think about the question and the answer. This approach usually result in better quality, higher level answers from students. Venn diagram - Answer- A type of graphic organizer that assists students in understanding similarities and differences between two or more concepts, topics or terms. Consists of overlapping circles representing the concepts or terms under discussion. Semantic map - Answer- A type of graphic organizer that visually displays the relationships among various words and their meanings. Literacy - Answer- While usually applying to the ability to read and to write, it can actually refer to an individual's overallknowledge or understanding of a concept or topic, such as "media literacy" (understanding a wide range of media) "cultural literacy" (a broad understanding of cultures), etc. Object permanence - Answer- Jean Piaget's idea that children of about eight or nine months of age develop awareness/the idea that objects continue to exist even when one cannot see them. Before this stage, as far as the infant is concerned, items that are not within eyesight range do not exist. Concrete operational - Answer- Piaget's third stage of cognitive developmentAges 7 to 12. At this time, elementary-age and preadolescent children demonstrate logical, concrete reasoning. Children's thinking becomes less egocentric and they are increasingly aware of external events. They begin to realize that one's own thoughts and feelings are unique and may not be shared by others or may not even be part of reality. Sensorimotor - Answer- Piaget's first stage of cognitive development. Birth through ages 18- 24 months. infants are only aware of what is immediately in front of them. They focus on what they see, what they are doing, and physical interactions with their immediate environment. Preoperational - Answer- Piaget's second stage of cognitive development. (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7. During this stage, young children are able to think about things symbolically. Their language use becomes more mature. They also develop memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future, and engage in make-believe. But their thinking is based on intuition and still not completely logical. Formal operational. - Answer- Piaget's fourth (final) stage of cognitive development. Adolescence through adulthood. Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual development are able to logically use symbols related to abstract concepts, such as algebra and science. They can think about multiple variables in systematic ways, formulate hypotheses, and consider possibilities. They also can ponder abstract relationships and concepts such as justice. Locus of control - Answer- Refers to where an individual believes the control for his or life is. A person can have an external locus of control, believing that s/he has no control over what happens, how successful s/he is, that iis all a matter of luck, fate, etc.. Or, a person can have an internal locus of control meaning that s/he believes that s/he can control outcomes by making different decisions, working harder, etc. Multidisciplinary - Answer- A lesson that or study that incorporates and integrates knowledge and