Cognitive Processes and Strategies in Reading Comprehension, Exams of Advanced Education

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NYSTCE MULTI-SUBJECT: SECONDARY

TEACHERS 2023 STUDY GUIDE

Can identify the letters of the alphabet both capital and lowercase when asked to do so - Alphabet recognition Written language is comprised of letters (graphemes) that represent sounds (phonemes) in spoken words - Alphabetic principle Declarative memories that preserve many of the aspects of the original stimulus (object or event).Example: mental imagery i.e., when you recall a mental picture of what the something looked like. - Analogical representations A strategy taught to help students use parts of words they have learned to attack words that are unfamiliar - Analogy-based phonics Short written observationsmade by the teacher while student's work making notes on their progress to look back at later. - Anecdotal notes (records) Comprehension strategy that is used before reading to activate students' prior knowledge and build curiosity about a new topic. They help students make connections between new information and prior knowledge. Used to motivate reluctant readers by stimulating their information - Anticipation guides Focus on a stimulus. Involved in all three memory processes: Sensory Memory, Long-Term Memory, and Working Memory. - Attention The ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort. Examples include riding a bike and driving a car. - Automaticity Availability: is info stored in long term memory? Accessibility: how easily is info retrieved? - Availability vs accessibility

Strategies teachers use to allow for different learning styles - Balanced literacy models Question sources writer uses, use of fact or opinions to support claim, what was left out, how they address contrary evidence or opinions. - Bias uncovering A sequence of consonants before or after a vowel in each syllable - Blend Remember (Recognizing, Recalling) - Bloom's 1st level Understand (Interpreting, Exemplifying, Classifying, Summarizing, Inferring, Comparing, Explaining) - Bloom's 2nd level Apply (Executing, Implementing) - Bloom's 3rd level Analyze (Differentiating, Organizing, Attributing) - Bloom's 4th level Evaluate (Checking, Critiquing) - Bloom's 5th level Create (Generating, Planning, Producing) - Bloom's 6th level Can the student recall the information? - Bloom's Q for (1) remember Can the student explain ideas or concepts? - Bloom's Q for (2) understand Can the student use the information in a new way? - Bloom's Q for (3) apply Can the student distinguish between the different parts? - Bloom's Q for (4) analyze Can the student justify a stand or decision? - Bloom's Q for (5) evaluate Can the student create a new product or point of view? - Bloom's Q for (6) create

Notes made on the reading that highlight passages that "speak" to them personally - Code A focus on changes and thought that are part of learning. They differ from behavioral approaches in that they emphasize the mental mechanisms that underlie the processing and representation of information during learning. - Cognitive approaches The interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge creation, and the brain. - Cognitive science A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge. - Cognitive view of learning Construct understanding and/or meaning from the words - Comprehension Drawing together the main ideas of something and restating them in a succinct way. - Concluding Knowing when and how to apply the declarative and procedural knowledge you have learned. Might be stored as cognitive strategies, or information about the conditions under which declarative and procedural knowledge is useful. - Conditional knowledge Focuses on the ways declarative and procedural knowledge are combined via connections among elements. - Connectionist model of memory Consonants that occur side by side within the same syllable. No intervening vowel sound. Also called blends. - Consonant Clusters

1. Prior Knowledge
2. Inferencing
3. Monitoring
4. Summarizing
5. Asking Questions - Constructing meaning strategies

Memory is largely built on prior experience in context. It is not merely reproductive. People often use existing cognitive frameworks, or schemas, to construct organizations for new information. Mental scripts, or stereotypical sequences of events, also can affect students' expectations and memories. - Constructivist approaches Content in surrounding text that help the reader determine the meaning of an unknown word. - Context clues Left side is for recording main idea, right side is for details about the main ideas. Bottom = summary - Cornel Notes Method Determine the point at which the student has achieved mastery. They enable educators to assess whether a student has met a predetermined goal. - Criterion-referenced tests Semantic: did that sentence make sense? Syntactic: does that sound right? Graphophonemic: does that look right? - Cueing systems Consonant-vowel-consonant pattern which produces a short vowel sound or a closed syllable. - CVC Knowledge described as "knowing that," e.g., knowing that the sun rises in east. Categorical knowledge is declarative. Stored in semantic to episodic memory. - Declarative knowledge An ability use sound-symbol correspondence to sound out new words or to interpret a word from print to speech. - Decoding Pieces of information that support or tell more about the main idea. Uses words like who, what, where, when, how and why to identify main ideas. News articles are good for practicing. - Details Standardized tests that aim to determine a student's strengths and weaknesses. - Diagnostic assessment A union of two characters representing a single sound. - Digraph

Long term memories that hold knowledge of personally experienced events or episodes. Used when people learn lists of words or need to recall something they learn in a particular personal context. - Episodic memory Consciously recallable information, e.g., words from a list. - Explicit memory Explicit memory: Consciously acting to recall/recognize particular info, e.g., trying to remember a list of words you just saw. Implicit memory: Recalling/recognizing info without consciously being aware of doing so, e.g., remembering (without effort) meanings of words as you read. - Explicit vs. Implicit memory Coordinate the words and meaning so reading becomes automatic - Fluency Fast tests, usually one-minute timed readings, focusing on accuracy, rate and prosody; what a student's words per minute or words correct per minute are calculated. - Fluency checks

1. Central executive.
2. Phonological loop.
3. Visuospatial sketchpad.
4. Episodic buffer. - Four elements of working memory Guided reading-thinking activities that offer support by engaging students in the reading and improving comprehension of narrative text. They teach how to make predictions, focus their reading on confirming or disproving, adjustments in thinking. A cycle. A form of scaffolding that will be removed once the process is internalized - GRTA Recall and recognize information without consciously being aware of doing so. - Implicit memory Think-alouds, referents, asking questions that are often "Think and Search." Write down a sequence of events from the story line and ask students to script the

missing pieces using what they know about characters, setting and other related clues. Students can read their own sentences and look for referents, context clues and details of events - Inference-building approaches Making predictions before, during, and after reading - Inferencing "Reading between the lines. " Skills that assist students to make connections to new info in texts by drawing conclusions, determining relationships, conceptualizing implied ideas. Making inferences requires several reading behaviors: recognizing a pronoun's antecedent, learning unknown words from context clues, identifying bias, etc... - Inferential Comprehension Skills Indicate in: Nouns: possession, gender, number Verbs: tense, voice, person & number & mood Adjectives: comparison Inflectional suffixes do not change the part of speech of the base. (-ed, - ing) - Inflectional suffixes The human mind's activity of taking in, storing, and using information. - Information processing Forgetting is caused by competing information that renders the sought-after information inaccessible. - Interference theory "Know", "Want to Know", "Learned" charts encourage students to use prior knowledge and personal curiosity while researching a subject or a topic. This strategy is especially useful in reading classes, but is also useful in other subjects such as science and social studies. - K-W-L

2. Storage retains encoded info in memory
3. Retrieval gain access to info stored in memory - Memory basic operations
4. Sensory register
5. Short term memory
6. Long term memory - Memory places where info can be encoded Ways in which knowledge is stored in memory. These representations preserve certain information about, and our interpretations of, objects and events in the world. - Mental representations The knowledge and control of one's memory. - Metamemory skills Areas of the brain that activate both:

• During perception of an action by watching someone else do it, and
• When performing the action. - Mirror systems Recording and analyzing student's oral reading errors in order to gain insight into the reading process they employ. (retell what you just read so you know you've understood the text). - Miscue analysis The approaches that students or teachers can use to improve memory and learning. These include categorical clustering; interactive images; peg word; the method of loci; acronyms; acrostics and keywords. - Mnemonic techniques
• Asking oneself whether this makes sense.
• Rereading.
• Reading ahead
• Looking up words in the dictionary - Self-monitoring techniques The smallest unit of language that has meaning and may be a part of a word - Morpheme

Test that develops average scores of the populations to serve as comparison points. Administered to students of various socioeconomic backgrounds and in a variety of geographic locations. - Norm-referenced test The part of a syllable (or the one-syllable word) that comes before the vowel (e.g., "str" in "string"). - Onset Parts of words in the spoken language smaller than syllables - Onset and rime Separates onsets and rimes in words so students may read them and blend parts into words - Onset-rime phonics tudents determine how to categorize words, thereby becoming involved in an active manipulation of words. - Open word sort Something that is believed to be true. When used to support an argument, position is weakened. Also, revelatory of writer's bias and perspective. - Opinion Development of spoken language system - Oral language Comprehending that sounds in language are represented by symbols (printed or written) - Orthographic knowledge Conversations about text rich in ideas meant to improve abstract thinking and problem-solving skills. Collaborative work using many different skills. Works with open ended question; works best with older students. - Paideia Seminars Type of memory procedure in which a person learns pairs of words. When one word in the pair is presented, the person must respond with the correct matching word. - Paired associates recall

1. Recognize sets of words have similar sounds (identifying rhyming words in a sentence)
2. Learn to examine a set of words to /determine which is not like the others, oddity task)
3. Learn how to blend sounds to create words.
4. Divide words into their phonemes (segmenting words) and count the number of sounds in a word.
5. Learn how to manipulate the sounds in a word by substituting or deleting one or many phonemes - Phonemic Awareness task types Promotes understanding of alphabetic principles and relationship between phonemes and graphemes. - Phonics Students apply letter sound relationships from learned words to those not familiar while not pronouncing sounds in isolation - Phonics analytics Teach children to segment words into phonemes and create words by writing letters for phonemes - Phonics and spelling Often called word families, these end in high frequency rimes that vary only in the beginning consonant sound to make a word. For example, back, sack, black and track. - Phonograms Retrieval of sound based codes from memory - Phonological access An awareness of the ability to manipulate the sounds of spoken words; it is a broad term that includes:

• Identifying and making rhymes.
• Recognizing alliteration.

• Identifying and working with syllables in spoken words.
• Identifying and working with onsets and rhymes in spoken syllables. - Phonological awareness Ability to hold sound based information in immediate memory - Phonological memory Involves understanding that words are made up of smaller sounds like syllables and phonemes - Phonological sensitivity Manipulation of language with respect to meter, meaning, sound, and rhythm - Poetry or verse Mnemonic device for the steps in the study method: preview, question, read, reflect, recite and review. - PQ4R A syllable or word that comes before a root word to change its meaning - Prefix All knowledge, skills and experience that come before conventional literacy. Students gain oral vocabulary, learn sentence structure, develop phonological awareness - Pre-reading Preparing students with background information and concepts related to the topic. - Priming Knowing the basic concepts about written words. - Print awareness Understanding how text works to communicate a message. Includes handing of books and orientation of text. - Print Concept
• Combine movement activities to convey bottom, top side.
• Lesson on the parts of a book.
• Experiences with different fonts and text sizes and their different meanings.

• Criterion-referenced tests
• Percentile ranking
• Stanine score (uses 1-9)
• Diagnostic assessment
• Performance-based assessment
• Fluency checks - Reading Assessment types Ability to decode words quickly and accurately in order to read text with appropriate word stress, pitch, and intonation pattern (prosody). This skill requires automacity of word recognition and reading with prosody to facilitate comprehension. - Reading Fluency Tasks which require a person to produce information from memory, including free recall, serial recall, and paired associates recall. - Recall tasks Tasks that require a person to select or identify something he or she has learned. - Recognition tasks The objects, events, ideas, or relationships referred to by the words - Referents The repeated recitation of an item. Rehearsal is a learned process. - Rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal: simply repeat items to be learned. Elaborative rehearsal: associate the info with things you know. Elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal for encoding info into long-term memory. - Rehearsal types Involves reading, viewing, and listening, students record thoughts and feelings as they read, listen to or watch literary, factual or media texts. - Response logs Reading, silently or aloud, then expressing what has been read. Helps teachers assess a student's reading comprehension level by checking for literal and inferential understanding. Focus with recall question, clarifying, extending, raising the level of questioning - Retelling (written or oral)

How you gain access to information stored in memory. - Retrieval Approaches that enhance accessibility of stored information - Retrieval cues Forgetting caused by activity that occurs after something is learned. - Retroactive interference (retroactive inhibition) The vowel and the ending consonants after the onset. - Rime Learning through repetition (maintenance rehearsal) with little attempt to add or find meaning in the info. - Rote learning An assessment which measures a child' fluency during oral reading - Running record An activity during reading that helps students monitor their reading comprehension. In small groups, students take turns reading and commenting on text. Shared observations help students get meaning from text - Say Something An internal representation of the world. Needs to be activated before learning something new. K-W-L charts are examples. Field trips and hands-on experiences help to increase prior knowledge. - Schema Readers understand what they read only as it relates to what they know - Schema theory Screening instrument is used to assess students at the beginning of the year to identify the student's reading level and capabilities. Can show growth over time. - Screening Stereotypical story outline for how events typically proceed. - Script Relating words meaningfully by determining whether the words describe something already meaningful to the reader. - Self-reference effect

Examples: telephone number; list of vocabulary words. - Short term memory Every vowel has two sounds, the vocal cords are more relaxed when producing the short vowel sound because of this the sounds are often referred to as lax. They can be heard at the beginning of these words: apple, Ed, igloo, octopus, and umbrella. - Short vowel sounds

1. A word that is immediately recognized as a whole and does not require word analysis for identification.
2. A word taught as a whole. Words that are phonically irregular or are important to learn before students have the skills to decode them are often taught as sight words. - Sight-word recognition View suggesting that social factors and specific learning environments form an important part of the context responsible for how well people learn. - Situated learning A belief that social factors form an important part of the context responsible for how well people learn. Learning must be studied and understood in the context in which it takes place. Learning takes place in, and is relevant to, a cultural context called enculturation. An important aspect of situated learning is people's metacognition, or the way they understand and control their own thinking. - Situated learning perspective Connective Vista model where stimulus activates nodes. Activation of one node may prompt activation of another, connected node. - Spreading activation

A study method incorporating five steps: survey, question, read, rehearse, review - SQ3R Range from one through nine, scores of four through six are considered to be average. - Stanine Score A graphic organizer of major events and ideas from a story to help guide students' thinking and heighten their awareness of the structure of stories. - Story map Teacher synopsizes a story, showing the text in the order of events as they are described. - Story walk Manner in which a writer uses a language in prose or poetry. Style is affected by diction (word choices), sentence structure, and syntax. - Style A group of letters placed at the end of a word to change its meaning - Suffix Pull together the important information. If a student has trouble summarizing the objective and content of a lesson, it usually means lack of comprehension. - Summarize A brief first look at the text to look for clues to its organization. Bold and italic words, titles and subtitles are noted and used to organize students notes as they read. - Survey The ability to conceptualize and separate words into their basic pronunciation components. - Syllabication Declarative memories that rely on arbitrary symbols that they are no obvious relation to whatever is being represented. For example, the word "dog" bears no physical resemblance to a dog, even though it represents the concept of a dog. - Symbolic representations Hints that rely on language structure or rules (sometimes called grammatical cues). Grammatical information in a text that readers process to construct meaning. - Syntactic Cues