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Cognitive Psychology: Theories, Concepts, and Applications, Exams of Psychology

An overview of key concepts and theories in cognitive psychology, including cognitive therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy, family therapy, and the contributions of influential psychologists such as sigmund freud, anna freud, howard gardner, lev vygotsky, and john watson. It covers a wide range of topics, including defense mechanisms, intelligence, child development, learning theories, and behavioral conditioning. The document delves into the fundamental principles and processes that underlie human cognition, perception, and behavior, offering insights into the complex interplay between the mind, emotions, and environmental factors. By studying this document, readers can gain a deeper understanding of the cognitive processes that shape our thoughts, actions, and overall psychological well-being.

Typology: Exams

2023/2024

Available from 07/28/2024

DrShirley
DrShirley 🇺🇸

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AP Psych Final Exam Review

social psychology - the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another attribution theory - the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition fundamental attribution error - the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition attitude - feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a patricular way to objects, people, and events central route persuasion - attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts peripheral route persuasion - attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness foot in the door phenomenon - the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request role - a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave cognitive dissonance theory - the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes conformity - adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard normative social influence - influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval social facilitation - stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social loafing - the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable deindividuation - the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity group polarization - the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group group thinking - the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives culture - the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next norm - an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior personal space - the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies prejudice - an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action stereotype - a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people discrimination - unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members ingroup - "Us" - people with whom one shares a common identity outgroup - "them"—those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup. ingroup bias - the tendency to favor our own group scapegoat theory - the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame other race effect -

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias just world phenomenon - the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get agression - any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy frustration-agression principle - the principle that frustration--the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal--creates anger, which can generate aggression mere exposure effect - the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them passionate love - an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship companionate love - the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined equity - a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it self-disclosure - revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others altruism - unselfish regard for the welfare of others bystander effect - the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present social exchange theory - the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs reciprocity norm - an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them social-responsibilty norm - An expectation that people will help those dependent upon them conflict - a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

social trap - a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior mirror-image perceptions - mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive self-fulfilling prophecy - a belief that leads to its own fulfillment superordinate goals - shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation GRIT - Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction, strategy designed to decrease international tensions. informational social influence - influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality ecletic approach - An approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the clients problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy. psychotherapy - treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth resistance - in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material psychoanalysis - Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions interpretation - in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors in order to promote insight transference - in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships psychodynamic therapy - therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight

insight therapies - a variety of therapies which aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client's awareness of underlying motives and defenses client-centered therapy - A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. active listening - empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy. unconditional positive regard - a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed to be conducive to developing self-awareness and self-acceptance. behavior therapy - therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors counterconditioning - a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning. Includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning. exposure therapies - behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid systematic desensitization - a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli; commonly used to treat phobias virtual reality exposure therapy - an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking token economy - An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats. cognitive therapy - therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions cognitive-behavior therapy - a popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior) family therapy -

therapy that treats the family as a system. views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other family members; attempts to guide family members toward positive relationships and improved communication regression toward the mean - the tendency for extremes of unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average. meta-analysis - a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies evidence-based practice - clinical decision-making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences biomedical therapy - prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient's nervous system psychopharmacology - the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior antipsychotic drugs - drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder. tardive dyskinesia - involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target D2 dopamine receptors anti-depressant drugs - drugs used to treat depression; also increasingly prescribed for anxiety; different types work by altering the availability of various neurotransmitters electroconvulsive therapy - a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation - the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity. psychosurgery - surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior lobotomy - a now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. the procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain resilience -

The personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma alfred adler - neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: inferiority complex, organ inferiority; Studies: birth order influences personality gordon w allport - (personality) described personality in terms of fundamental triats - people's characteristic behaviors and consious motives. He came to define personality in terms of identificable behavior patterns. He was concered less with explaining individual traits than with describing them. Solomon Asch - conformity; showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect ; in a famous study in which participants were shown cards with lines of different lengths and were asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length Atkinson and Shiffrin - In 1968 proposed a 3 STAGE information processing model of memory. 1) Sensory Memory records information 2) then processed into SHORT TERM MEMORY BIN, where it is encoded through REHEARSAL, 3) Information moves into LONG TERM MEMORY for retrieval. albert bandura - pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play aaron beck - pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression. Alfred Binet - pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French) Paul Broca - responsible for discovering the area on the left frontal lobe responsible for coordinating muscle movements involved in spoken language (Brocas area) Jerome Bruner - "Discovery Learning and Constructivism" He suggests that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based on knowledge or past experiences. {Constructivism Theory} - emphasizes a student's ability to solve real-life problems and make new meaning through reflection. {Discovery Learning} - features teaching methods that enable students to discover information by themselves or in groups. raymond cattell -

used factor analysis in data reduction of Allport's 5000 traits; identified 16 bipolar source traits (e.g. relaxed-tense) that seemed to underlie all; 16 personality factors tested in personality questionnaire noam chromsky - He believed that children learn a set of rules to combine linguistic elements in order to produce an infinite number of utterances. He thinks linguists should focus on the mind and the linguistic competence of the ideal speaker-listener. Children reinvent language. Also Chromsy believes that we are born with some innate linguistic knowledge. H. Ebbinghaus - (memory) studied recall and learning and found that the amount of information remembered depends of the time spent learning. Developed the scientific concept of rehearsal, spacing effect, and serial position effect. albert ellis - pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions erik erikson - neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?" hans eysenck - Psychology theorists who suggested that personality could be reduced to two polar dimensions introversion-extraversion and emotional instability-stability (neuroticism). introversion/extroversion anna freud - 1895-1982; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: focused on child psychoanalysis, fully developed defense mechanisms, emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle sigmund freud - Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do) focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation howard gardner - Harvard researcher that has identified at least eight types of intelligences: linguistic, logical/mathematical, bodily/kinesthetic, musical, spatial (visual), interpersonal (the ability to understand others), intrapersonal (the ability to understand oneself), and naturalist (the ability to recognize fine distinctions and patterns in the natural world). Elanor Gibson - *depth perception experiment: visual cliff *going over the clear glass is dependent on mom's facial expression (sad/happy)

*heart rate slows when the infant (2-3 months) approaches the drop-off Carol Gilligan - moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse Harry Harlow - development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort Karen Horney - neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety" Hubel and Weisel - Studies with monkeys to show that they had specific FEATURE DETECTORS to aid them in visual processing (some for lines, bards, edges, shapes, etc.) William James - founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; wrote first psychology textbook - The Principles of Psychology Irving Janis - Groupthink; likely to occur in a group that has unquestioned beliefs, pressue to conform, invulnerability, censors, cohesiveness within, isolation from without, and a strong leader Carl Jung - neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; believed everyone has a collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; dream studies/interpretation Lawrence Kohlberg - stage theory of moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why? Wolfgang Kohler - Gestalt psychologist that first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments. He noticed the solution process wasn't slow, but sudden and reflective. Richard Lazarus - stress researcher who developed the idea of daily hassles, the daily hassles scale, and the system of appraisal of stress related to the event and one's ability to cope; believes daily hassles were worse than major life events because they are cumulative (they add up like the straw that broke the camel's back) Kurt Lewin -

A German refugee who escaped Nazi oppression. He designed an experiment to investigate the effects of different leadership styles on group functions. He wanted to find out if people were more productive under 3 different styles 1. autocratic, 2. laizssez-faire, and 3. democratic. This is the study when he had children do activities under the 3 conditions. The democratic style proved to be the most productive as was expected Konrad Lorenz - researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting Abraham Maslow - Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self- actualization" Stanley Milgram - obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions Ivan Pavlov - discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell Jean Piaget - Developed the four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational,

  1. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation Carl Rogers - 1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person Schachter and Stinger - two psychologists responsible for proposing the cognitive arousal theory of emotions Hans Seyle - studied stress—the body responds in the same way to any stress; General Adaptation Syndrome—a series of bodily reactions to prolonged stress (alarm, resistance, exhaustion)., The father of "modern stress theory." Defined eustress and distress. Stated that stress is a mutual action of forces in the body. B.F. Skinner - Behaviorism; pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats. Roger Spearman - (intelligence) developed factor analysis, and believed that there is a general intelligence, or g factor, that underlies the specific factors.

Roger Sperry - studied split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions Robert Sternberg - intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative) Edward Tolman - american psychologist who used the terms cognitive map and latent learning to describe experimental findings that strongly suggested the cognitive factors play a role in animal learning E.L. Thorndike - Law of effect: (the relationship between behavior and its consequences) the principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences becomes more likely. Behavior followed by less likely consequences beomes less likely. Individuals do what rewards them and stop doing what doesn't bring some reward. Lev Vygotsky - child development; zone of proximal development - investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; play research John Watson - founder of behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat Ernst Weber - He pioneered the study on just noticeable difference (JND). It became known as Weber's law; the JND between stimuli is a constant fraction of the intensity of the standard stimulus. E.g. the bigger the standard stimulus, the larger increment needed to get a noticeable difference Wilhelm Wundt - german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879 Benjamin Whorf - created the concept of "liguistic determinism" or how language impacts thought Yerkes/Dodson - developed Yerkes-Dodson law which states that performance is best at intermediate levels of arousal Philip Zimbardo - Conducted the famous Stanford Prison experiment. It was conducted to study the power of social roles to influence people's behavior. It proved people's behavior depends to a large extent on the roles that are asked to play personality - An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

free association - In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. psychoanalysis - Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions unconscious - according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. according to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware Id - a reservoir of unconscious energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. Ego - the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain Superego - the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations Psychosexual stages - the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones Oedipus complex - according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father Identification - the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos fixation - according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved defense mechanisms - in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality repression -

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness regression - psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated reaction formation - Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety- arousing unconscious feelings. projection - psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others rationalization - psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions. displacement - Psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet collective unconscious - Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history projective test - a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics Thematic Appreception Test - projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interestt through the stories they make up about ambiuous scenes. Rorschach inkblot test - the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots Terror-Management theory - A theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death slef-actualization - according to Maslow, the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential. unconditional positive regard - according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

self-concept - all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "who am I?" trait - a characteristic that an organism can pass on to its offspring through its genes. personality inventory - A questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits. MMPI - the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally used to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening puposes empirically derived test - a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups reciprocal determinism - the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment personal control - the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless external locus of control - the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate internal locus of control - the perception that you control your own fate positive psychology - the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive self - in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions spotlight effect - overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us) self-esteem - one's feelings of high or low self-worth self-serving bias -

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably individualism - giving priority to one's own goals over group goals, and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications collectivism - giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly psychological disorder - devianty, distressful, and dsyfunctional patternsof thoughts, feelings, or behaviors attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) - a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity medical model - the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured. When applied to psychological disorders, assumes that these mental illnesses can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy, which may include treatment in a psychiatric hospital. DSM-IV-TR - the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, with an updated "text revision"; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. anxiety disorders - psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety generalized anxiety disorder - an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal panic disorder - an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations phobia - an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) - An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions). post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) -

an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience post-traumatic growth - positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises somatoform disorder - psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause conversion disorder - a rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found hypochondriasis - a somatoform disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease dissociative disorders - Disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings dissociative identity disorder (DID) - A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder. mood disorders - psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes major depressive disorder - a mood disorder in which a person, for no apparent reason, experiences two or more weeks of depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminishes interest or pleasure in most activities mania - a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state bipolar disorder - A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania schizophrenia - A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions delusions - False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders personality disorders -

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. antisocial personality disorder - a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist intelligence test - a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores intelligence - mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations general intelligence (g) - according to Spearman and others underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. factor analysis - a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score savant syndrome - a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing emotional intelligence - the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions mental age - a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Stanford-Binet - the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test itelligence quotient (IQ) - measurement in which the mental age of an individual is divided by the personals chronological age, then multiplied by 100. achievement tests - a test designed to assess what a person has learned aptitude tests - a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests standardization - defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested standardization group normal curve - the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. reliability - the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting validity - the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. content validity - the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest predictive validity - The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. intellectual disability - (formerly referred to as mental retardation) a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound Down syndrome - a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup stereotype threat - a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype developmental psychology - a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span zygote - the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo embryo - the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus - the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth teratogens - agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. fetal alcohol syndrome - physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions habituation - decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner maturation - biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience cognition - all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating schema - a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information assimilation - interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas accommodation - adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensiorimotor stage - in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to 2yrs) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impression and motor activities object permanence - the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived preoperational stage - in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic conservation - The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects egocentrism - in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

theory of mind - people's ideas about their own and others' mental states -- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict concrete operational stage - in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events formal operational stage - in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts autism - A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind stranger anxiety - the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age attachment - an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation critical period - an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development imprinting - the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life temperament - a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity basic truth - according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers self-concept - our understanding and evaluation of who we are gender - in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female agression - physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

X chromosome - the sex chromosome found in both men and women. females have two x chromosomes; males have one. an x chromosome from each parent produces a female child Y chromosome - The sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. testosterone - the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty role - A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. gender role - a set of expected behaviors for males and for females gender identity - our sense of being male or female gender typing - The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role. social learning theory - the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished adolescense - the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. puberty - the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing primary sex characteristics - the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible secondary sex characteristics - Nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. menarche - the first menstrual period indentity -

one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles social identity - the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships intimacy - in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood. emerging adulthood - for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to early twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood menopause - the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines cross-sectional study - a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another longitudinal study - research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period crystallized intelligence - our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age fluid intelligence - our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood social clock - the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement emotion - a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience James-Lange theory - the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli Cannon-Bard theory - the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion two-factor theory - Schachter-Singer's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

polygraph - a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion facial feedback - the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness catharsis - Emotional release. hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges. feel-good, do-good phenomenon - people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood well-being - self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well- being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life. adaptaion-level phenomenon - tendency to form judgments relative to a 'neutral' level (ex: brightness of lights, volume of sounds, level of income). Defined by our prior experience relative deprivation - the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself behavioral medicine - an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease health psychology - a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine stress - the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging. general adaptation syndrome - Seylye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages--alarm, resistance, exhaustion coronary heart disease - the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries Type A - Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B - Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people psychophysiological illness - Literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches. psychoneuroimmunology - the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health lymphocytes - the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances. motivation - A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. instinct - a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned drive-reduction theory - the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need homeostasis - A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. incentive - a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior hierarchy of needs - Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active glucose - The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. set point - the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. basal metabolic rate - the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

anorexia nervosa - an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve bulima nervosa - an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usualy of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise binge-eating disorder - significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa. sexual response cycle - the four stages of sexual responding described by Matsters and Johnson-excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. refractory period - a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm estrogens - sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females that by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promotion sexual receptivity. testosterone - the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty sexual orientation - an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) memory - the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information encoding - the processing of information into the memory system--for example, by extracting meaning storage - retention of encoded information over time retrieval - the process of getting information out of memory storage sensory memory - the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system short-term memory -