Cogsci 1B Final Exam QUESTIONS WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS 2024/2025, Exams of Computer Science

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Cogsci 1B Final Exam QUESTIONS WITH

COMPLETE SOLUTIONS 2024/

Three Stage model of memory Atkinson-Shiffrin model sensory memory working memory (short term memory) long term memory Sensory memory holds sensory info briefly (.5-4 seconds) selection and processing of info part of perception iconic memory echoic memory iconic memory photographic memory visual sensory memory echoic memory auditory sensory memory eidetic imagery photographic memory characterized by relatively long lasting and detailed images of visual scenes that can be scanned and looked at only 5% of children and less in adults sensory mem short term memory

working memory hold items that are actively being thought about limited capacity - 7 +/- 2 items, number of words you can speak in 1.5 seconds 5 - 30 seconds working mem - because info decays rapid unless maintained in consciousness through rehearsal (active process) phonological loop associated with left hemi briefly stores sounds part of working mem cannot perform two at same time but can one verbal one spatial working mem visuospatial sketchpad associated with right hemi stores visual and spatial info cannot perform two at same time but can one verbal one spatial working mem episodic buffer working mem hold and combine info from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and long term memory to form a story - time sequencing central executive integrates info from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer similar to attention sensory model in atkinson shriffin model

long term memory all of one's knowledge no time limit no limit to amount explicit/declarative memory with conscious recall recall or recognition of info, can be verbally transmitted episodic memory: recall of personal facts semantic memory: recall of general facts ltm implicit/non-declarative memory without conscious recall memory that influences one's behavior or thought but does not itself enter consciousness, cannot be verbally transmitted procedural mem: recall of how to do things long term brain storage - karl lashley rats learn maze lesion cortex test memory resulted in finding memories do not reside in one single spot Long term potentiation mechanism through which learning occurs in brain a long term increase in the excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input caused by repeated high frequency activity of that input stimulating particular neural circuit will increase the sensitivity of neurons in that circuit, increasing chance it will fire again

binding of glutamate to NMDA receptors both negative and positive thoughts tend to be self-reinforcing important in processing and storing new explicit mems frontal lobes - recall info and hold it in working memory hippocampus - 'save' button for explicit memories hippocampus is loading dock (temp), then migrate to storage in memory consolidation removing rat hippocampus 3 hours after it learns prevents long term mem formation, 48 hours later no impact greater heart rate and hippocampus activity during sleep the better the next day mem dissociation when brain damage affects two behaviors very differently, this suggest that the two behaviors are produced by diff processes clive wearing - musician suffered damage to his hippocampus, wont rmmbr people he saw after 10 min but can still conduct choir and play piano hippocampus central to formation of explicit memories people with temporal lobe amnesia (damage to hippocampus and around) cannot form new explicit memories though they can form new implicit memories have normal iq and can carry on a normal convo but cannot remember anything that happened few min ago place cells posterior hippocampus neurons involved in spatial navigation volume of posterior hippocampus in london taxi driver larger than average two structures that play important roles in formation of implicit memories are

cerebellum - involved in learning of procedural memories for skills basal ganglia - deep brain structure important in motor sequencing parkinsons disease involves degeneration of parts of basal ganglia organic amnesia physical cause brain injury through accident or stroke provide evidence for diff memory system korsakoff amnesia - amnesia caused by brain damage resulting from thiamine deficiency, result from alcoholism psychogenic (hysterical) amnesia psychological cause DID/multiple personality disorder; person exhibits two or more distinct personalities alzheimer's disease disease occurring late in life characterized by deterioration of mem, reasoning and language abilities occurs in 7% of population above age of 65 and 40% of people older than 80 loss of neurons in cortical and sub cortical regions - ventricals may be enlarged - patient might lose 50% of brain mass severe degeneration of hippocampus and cortical gray area amyloid plaques deficiencies of acetylcholine amyloid plaques in brains of alzheimers patients contains a core of misfolded beta amyloid protein surrounded by degenerating axons and dendrites and neurofibrillary tangles (dying neurons that contain twisted filaments of tau protein)

causes of alzheimers genetic higher risk for those who had stroke or head trauma low levels of vitamin d and some vitamin b exposure to toxic substances such as air pollutants hearing loss is known to be largest modifiable risk factor use of anticholinergics associated with reduced brain volume and lower levels of glucose metabolism in hippocampus (tylenol PM, xanax, claritin) - trigger or worsen az those with tooth gum disease = worse memory active and non obese is less chance study of nuns found that education and intellectual activity protects again az degree of sentence complexity and amount of positive affect negatively associated with incidence of disease which regions of brain are thicker in successful agers than in regular agers? those regulating cognition or emotion emotion (midcingulate cortex and anterior insula) what type of activities will increase your chances of remaining sharp into old age? those that require hard work and cause you to feel somewhat tired or frustrated (math or gym) three stages of memory processing and forgetting encoding; getting info into brain storage; retaining that info retrieval; getting the info back out encoding failure information never entered long term memory (lack of attention) storage decay

information stored in long term memory gradually fades people remembered nearly 40% of foreign language vocab and grammar after 50 years people who had taken psych class remember 70% 10 years later primarily due to interference not passage of time nonsense syllable retention way better when sleep during retention interval degree of which memory interfere is dependent on similarity retrieval failure failure to access information that is stored in long term memory - not erase but inaccessible lack of appropriate retrievla cues repression of painful or anxiety provoking info memory reconstruction what we think we remember often never really occurred = we filter information and fill in missing pieces whenever we retrieve a memory, the brain rewrites it a bit = slightly altered chemically by a new protein synthesis that is linked to our present concerns and understanding unconscious 73 ninth grade interview, manipulating reconsolidation to treat people with traumatic mems, given memory blocking durg or electric shock during recall schemas generalized info about a situation or event enhanced recall for schema-consistent material repisodic memory recall of a supposed event that is really the blending of details over repeated and related episodes if asked about last mondays lunch, you might produce repisodic memory of usual

source amnesia attributing to the wrong souce an event that we have experienced hear about read or imagined donald thomson, psychologist studing memory who was accused of rape after being interviewed on tv savant syndrome people born with intellectual disability but show superior ability in one intellectual domain like art or music or math 10% of children w autism are savant 13 musical savant, all had language deficit, 5 blind, all showed interest in music at young age attributed to seemingly limitless memory creative savant tratis by disrupting left anterior frontal lobe with TMS hyperthesmia superior autbiographical memory perfect memory from age 10 larry cahill and james mcgaugh extensive memory test to assess extent memory enlarged hippocampys and caudate nucleus ocd type behavior deja vu (who) 60% of pop negative correlation with age positive correlation with socioeconomic level and education positive corrrelation with stress and fatugue common in travel dual processing explanation

deja vu dual processing explanation: incoming sensory data follow several different pathways, slight alteration in transmission speed in one pthway could cause brain to interpret data as two seperate experiences attentional explanation deja vu a fully processed perceptual experience that matches a minimally processed impression received moment earlier produces a strong feeling of familiarity original impression may not have fully been processed due to distraction memory explanation deja vu implicit familiarity without explicit recollection lamp in friends housed that is same one as aunt effect of sleep deprivation on memory and cognition sleep deprivation = irritability, fatigue, impaired concentration and creativity, greater vulnerability to accidents people unaware that concentration impaired impair function of prefrontal cortex = negative impact on attention memory and decision reduces neuroplasticity and proliferation cells in hippocampus impair process of making connections and gaining creative insight

• task to disocevr hidden rule, speed of performance slowed without sleep matthew walker and robert stickgold without sleep the brain was 40% less able to make new memories sleep and emotional regulation no sleep, brain scan show shutdown of medial prefrontal = anxiety sleep loss predicts depression can cause hallucination and delusion - peter tripp

sleep dept can cause metabolic and hormonal changes mimic aging and lead to diabetes obesity hypertension depress immune system sleep in adolescent teen now average nearly 2 hours less sleep a night than 80 years ago increase high blood pressure, heart disease diabetes, risktaking behavior, depression, car accidents sleep less than 8 hr 3 times more likely to suicide for each hour of sleep lost obesity risk increase by 80% study worse less athletic treatment for insomnia treatment of underlying psychological or physical problem behavior treatment (cbt) sleep restriction stimulus control relaxation response traning cbt as effective as meds exercise no cafeeine after 5 relax and dim lights hour before bedtime eatfood with more fiber and less carb and fat consume milk or banana or sunflower seeds medical students fact being awake for more than 24 hours impair performance as much as being drunk medical students trained on traditional schedule made 5-6 more diagnostic erros Neurolaw

interdisciplinary field of study that explores effects of new research findings in cognitive science on forensic psychiatry and legal practice eyewitness testimony lie detection methods neuroscientific evidence deep brain stimulation nootropics of mind enhancing drugs eyewitness testimony 2000 to 10000 people wrongfully convicted each year due to eyewitness test man who spent 11 years in prison for rape before found on DNA test that he was not 52 of 62 wrong cases due to eyewitness unreliable and manipulable eyewitness errors likely if witness attention was stressed and or distracted plausible misinfo witness is pressured to give specific response witness is given positive feedback confidence of a witness is a poor predictor of if a memory is accurate, but jury care about confidence misinformation effect incorporating misleading information presented after an event into one's memory shown film depicting traffic accident then asked how fast the cars were going when they "hit" or "smash", people answer faster when "smash" - also more broken glass improving testimony line ups should be admistered by blinded managers who don't know which one is suspect witness instructions should be standardized and designed to yield conservative response warn witness that perpetrator might not be present - telling not there reduce innocent conviction by 42%

ask witness to describe what happened before beginning questioning and ask open-ended questions cognitive interview technique ECI - visualize and be in scene, describe all detail, increase 30-35% recall false memories not hard to plant a false memory easy to implant while visualizing recovered memories much of recovered memory literature focus on child abuse ross cheit - woke up one morning and suddenly rmmbr being molested by camp counselor can be false - many incidence of abuse that never happened implant false memories - study on implanting false memories in children - think about real and fake events

• "did this happen to u" - after 10 week 58% of preschooler produced false stories - moustrap polygraph lie detector work by measuring several physiological responses from emotional arousal (perspiration, heart rate, blood pressure, breathing) control question, relevant question, if relevant more than control then lie problem with polygraph arousal with lying is no diff than other stressful situations, some people more prone to arousal 1/3 of innocent declared guilty 1/4 of guilty declared innocent not admissable in court for most part if someone believes its 100 accurate then it more likely will be guilty knowledge test were u on the scene of the crime? what kind of clothes was the deceased wearing if suspect shows spike in physiological measures only to items present at crime scene but claim not there they may be lying

brain fingerprinting lie detection eeg technique based on idea that brain emits a particular type of brain wwave pattern when one views emotionally significant material that one has seen before controversial fmri brain imaging lie detection deception associated with increased activity on both sides of prefrontal particular brain regions that are activated depend on various factors such as whether lie is spontaneous or memorized expensive and questionable accuracy neurological mind reading team of neuroscientist at carnegie mellon led by marce; just are learning to read mind bsed of fMRI cortical activation pattern identify what object viewing based on scan abstract ideasa like forgiveness gossip etc diff language diff emotion insanity defense a defendant is not responsible for criminal conduct if it is result of mental disease or he lacks capacity to appreciate the criminality of his conduct or conform to law cognitive and volitional capacity accused felons, 1% plead insanity amygdala lesion loss of fear conditioning, more aggresive charles whitman sniper who shot 38 individuals found to have midbrain tumor that pressed against amygdala

brain of convicted murderers decreased prefrontal activity and increased subcortical activity antisocial personality disorder showed 11% reduction in volume of gray matter in prefrontal frontal lobe damage through abuse be mediating factor show less response to facial display of others distress people with antisocial criminal tendencies amygdala smaller but greater activity low activity form of MAOA warrior gene behave aggresive when provoked low activty form of MAOA and were abused as children are six times more likely than normal to be convicted of violent crimes neuroscience based intervention development of intervention that will diminish the risk of an offend reoffending treating sexual aggression by using synthetic steroids that inhibit production of androgen adderall prescription medication for ADHD used by to boost academic performance inderal aka propranolol beta blocked originally approved for treatment of hypertension, off label use for anxiety treat social anxiety, stage anxiety prof musicians with inderal felt more in control, slow heart rate, better performance sat scores of high school students with test anxiety went up 120 modular and nonmodular processing jerry fodor modularity of mind

• rejected idea that the mind is organized in terms of faculties such as memory and attention that can process any type of info

• proposed the existence of specialized information processing modules for things like color perception, shape analysis, visual guidance of motion, grammar, detecting melody or rhythm
• modules operate at low level and work quickly to provide rapid solutions to highly determinate problems
• there are also high-level open ended nonmodular processes that can bring a wide range of information to bear on very general problems modular processes are characterized by domain specificity
• designed to carry out very specific information processing task
• can only operate on a limited range of input informational encapsulation
• not affected by what is going on elswhere in the mind
• cannot be infiltrated by background knowledge and expectations speed
• quick and efficient mandatory application
• respond automatically
• cannot be switched off modular processes usually characterized by fixed neural architecture: it is sometimes possible to identify determinate regions of the brain that are associated with particular types of modular processing
• fusiform face area for face recognition specific breakdown patterns
• modules can fail in highly determinate ways which provide clues on the form and structure of processing Prosopagnosia People with prosopagnosia cannot create a mental image of a face according to fodor not all cognition is carried out by modular mechanisms
• modules provide inputs to nonmodular central processing
• the latter can evaluate and correct outputs of congitive modules massive modularity hypothesis

mind does not do any central processing, all info processing is in modules human nind is a collection of darwinian modules - specialized modules each of which evolved to solve a specific set of problems encountered by our primitive ancestors evidence comes from research indicating that humans tend to be better at reasoining with deontic conditional than nondeontic

• deontic conditions deal with permission/prohibition darwinian modules engage in more complex types of information processing than fodorean ones and are not informationally encapsulated
• emotion detection
• intuitive mechanics
• folk psychology
• cheater detection wason card problem illustrate better at deontic rather than nondeontic if a card has vowel on one side then it has even nunber on the other side which card would you need to turn over in order to find out if rule is valid same question asked with beer 73% of students who tried drinking age problem made correct selection as opposed to 0% of the other one why people are better at reasoning deontic conditionals than nondeontic One theory of why people are better at reasoning with deontic conditionals than with nondeontic conditionals is that when they solve problems with the deontic conditionals, they are using a specialized module for monitoring social exchanges and detecting cheaters act-r hybird cognitive architecture adaptive control of thought - rational cognitive architecture with modular organization that was developed by john r anderson in 1976 it is hybrid in sense that incorporates both symbolic and subsymbolic information processing john r anderson

cognitive architecture with modular organization All of the above modules are encoded in the form of physical symbols perceptual motor layer - perceptual module in turn consists of visual module, audition module motor module consists of speech module, manual model communication between modules on different layers take place via buffers (workspaces) cognitive layer declarative memory is organized in "chunks" procedural memory is encoded as production rules; action for system to perform production rules can be nested within each other so that output of a given production rule wil trigger firing of another production rules what makes act-r a hybrid architecture is that the symbolic modular architecture is run on a subsymbolic base act-r is designed to operate serially so that at any given moment only one production rule can be active

• pattern matching module controls which production rule gains access to the buffer by working out which production rule has highest utility at the moment of selection depth perception - visual cliff experiment infants who have had experience crawling develop wariness of heights 6 - 7 month old infants who crawl or move around on glass show fear younger infants who have not had experience crawling do not show fear piagettian stages of cognitive development piaget theory of how humans acquire, construct, and use knowledge piaget observed that children of different ages made different kinds of mistakes when solving problems not little adults that know less, they think differently

four developmental stages four developmental stages sensorimotor preoperational concreate operations formal operations sensorimotor stage birth - 2 yr children act on objects, coordinate sensory experience from these interactions and form schemas about objects they learn to think about aspects of environment outside of the reach of their senses object permanence - understanding object exists even when cannot be seen pre-operational stage 2 yr - 7 yr child develops ability to symbolize objects and events that are abset engages in pretend play child still has trouble seeing from other povs - egocentric three mountain task - child unable to describe how mountain would look to doll shift happens within couple weeks (abrupt) understanding based on appearances rather than principles - no conservation of liquid, child say tall glass has more milk concreat operations 7 - 11

child develops high order schemas called operations- understands reversible consequences of actions conservation of liquid quantity, mass quantity, number formal operations over 11 child develops ability to engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning and to think about abstract concepts finding patterns odd and even test, pendulum test strengths and weaknesses of piagets theory strength - good overview of childrens thinking, fascinating observations weakness: depicts children thinking as more consistent than it actually is (tilted water bottle test - 50% male and 75% female undergrad failed this test), later research found that children more competent than piaget recognized, understates contribution of social world, does not explain underlying mechanisms object permanence and reasoning in infancy research has indicated that children more cognitively competent than piaget recognized object permanence example: piaget thought ob perm developed around 8 months but renee baillargeon aruged piaget finding was rooted in lack of motor ability in infants, most recently infants as young as 3. months understand ob perm infant folk physics infants place more weight on spatiotemporal continuity than on featural continuity

• they do not show surpirse if a green scarf disappears behind a screen and flowers emerge instead
• they show surprise if a large whit rabbit appears in a box then later in a hat, without seeing path of movement for adults - featural constancy more important
• assume same rabbit
• assume diff object not flower into scarf modeling object permanence object permanence can be explicitly represented in a body of rules and principles yuko munakata suggested alternative neural network approach using recurrent neural network

recurrent neural network designed to deal with time series and sequence data in a recurrent neural network there are feedback connections that result in the output at time 1 serving as the input at time 2 - function as memory activation associated with sight of the hidden object at a previous temporal stage is transmitted to current stage information is then used to predict what the next set of inputs will be network learning, using backpropogation, is driven by the discrepancy between the predicted input and the actual input

• as training progresses the network becomes increasingly proficient at predicting the reappearance of occluded objects over longer and longer periods of occlusion because the network learns gradually, sensitivity to object permanence is a graded phenomenon
• in early stages of training it may be strong enough to drive perceptual expectations but to weak to drive motor behavior applications of RNN speech recognition speech synthesis machine translation music composition time series prediction robot control development of self- recognition rouge test of self recog
• spot of red rouge placed on child nose in front of mirror
• 18 - 24 months, child will respond by touching own now to feel or rub off rouge
• younger child touches mirror or tires to look behind it
• animals like ape, chimpazee, bonobos, gorillas, dolphin, orca, elephant, magpie can pass it too mindreading understand other peoples mental state
• allows us to make sense of other people, allows us to coordinate our behavior with theirs
• early rooted in pretend play

pretend play emerges around 14 months is considered a major milestone in cognitive and social development

• metarepresentation - use of a representation to represent another reptresentation children with autism showed impoverished pretned play and impairment in mindreading false belief task false belief displacement task
• best test for mindreading ability
• test whether children are able to abstract away from their own knowledge to understand that someone else can have different beliefs about the world container test
• child is shown a familar type of contained that contains unexpected object
• asked to predict what other person will think is inside false belief task test children theory of mind mechanism their ability to identify and reason about other people complex mental state such as beliefs desires hopes and fears
• pretend play emerges during the second year of life but children do not typically pass the false beliefe test until they are nearly 4
• indicates that believes operations is much harder to acquire than the pretends operation research by kristine onishe and renee baillargeon demonstrated that children may develop and implicit understanding of false beliefe well before age 4
• experiment similar to false belief displacement task measured looking time in 15 month old infants
• result indicated that children looked longer (showing suprise), when actor behavior vioalted expectations that someone with an understanding of false belief would have
• suggest children may develop an implicit understanding of false belief by 15 months but that explicit understanding involving explicit conceptual abilities manifested in verbal responsese and explicit refelction develops later stepping stones to development of TOMM shared attention mechanism - occurs when infants look at objects and likes looking at object because they see another person is looking at the object or they see that the other person sees that they are looking at object
• requires infant to be able to imbed representations to represent thatn an agnet is representing someone else's representation makes possible a range of coordinated social behaviors and activiteis

• autistic children struggle with this child understanding taht caregivier knows how he feels is critical for normal development. fodor's model of language learning default hypothesis is language learning is matter of learning rules - fodor added to default argue that learning language requires you to formulate test and revise hypotheses about truthe rules which must be formulated in the language of thought
• language of thought is innate and cannot be learned chomskys model of language storage of bodies of information that can be manipulated algorithmically humansborn with specialized language device that is prewired to learn language
• baby and kitten exposed to same but human can learn cat can not all human language can be understood in terms of diff paramters of a universal grammar
• universal grammar is innate and fixed structure that holds accross all languages nativist view - language is innate based on poverty of stimulus arguments - young children not exposed to enough info to allow them to learn a language how to test the claim of innatism can try to disprove by construcing models that simulat the trajectory of human language learning without explicitly representing any rules connectionist approach provides an alternative to the rule based conception of language comprehension and learning of nativist approache demonstarete it is possible to learn complex linguistic skills without having any explicit linguistic rules encoded in it
• simple recurrent networks can be trained to prdict next letter learning trajectory of these netwrok strongly resemble the learning trajectory of human infants college educatoin improves problem solving ability the ability to reason thats developed through learning about rules of reasoning in the natural and social sciences can generalize to toher domains

those w college edcuation handle stress better children learning english past tense go through through identifiable stages stage 1; employ small number of very common verbs in past tense, little mistakes stage 2: they use greater nuymber of verbs in past tense some are irregular but most used ed, start mistakes' stage 3: they learn more verbs and cease to make ovverregularization errors connectionist models of past tense acquisition display a similar trajectory of language learning without having an rules explicitly coded in them rumelhard mcclelland network: simple pattern associator that uses the perceptron convergence learning rule plunkett marchman multilayer neural network model of tense learning similarly produced overregularization errors but wihtout sudden increase in size of training set not biologically viable since human neurons dont engage in backpropogation main point is that possible to devise nural networks to reproduce trajectory of language learning without explicit representation of linguistic rules nativist view of language learning is not the only viable model bayesian language learning argue against innatism show much much can be learned through sensitivity to statistcal regularities in heard speech one of the most basic challenge in understnading speech is word segmentation - segmenting a continuous stream of sounds into indiviudal words

• can be expained by transitional probabilities - probability that the second will follow first sound age of language learning easy to learn language at early age before hardening of categories set in
• gradually lose ability to recongize phonemes
• adult hindi speaker and young infant from english speaking homes can tell t sound but after 1 cannot
• japanese speakers have trouble distinguishing between r and l
• at bith can tel 95% drops to 70% and then 20% by a year effect of early exposure on cog dev

by age 3, child growing in poverty would have heard 30 million fwere words in home environment great number of words children heartd from theihr parents before 3, the higher their IQ tv talk is detrimental, cannot learn vocab racial and socioeconomic gap accounted by dispparities in language if someon eis not exposed to language in childhood can they stil acquire langeage can learn vocab but prob cant ever full master neurolinguistic study of relationship between brain and language left hemisphere perform most language processing, right hemi interpret a message emotinoal tone, decode metaphor, dual-route approach to reading direct vs indirect access hypothesis do readers recongize a word directly from the printed letter (direct access) or do they convert language into phonological code to access word (indirect) peterson fox posner explore dual route approach all area of activation for speaking did not include areas of reading silently and listening parallel rather than serial model of single word processing, support the direct access hypothesis phonological dyslexia impairment in reading phonetic script but preserved ability in reading pictographic script surface dyslexia impairment in reading pictographic script second language acquisition skill building hypothesis - language is a learned skill comprehension hypothesis - language acquired through understadning comphrension hypothesis wins evidence supporting comprehnsible input

complexity of language learning qupes out skill builings study found that second language readers who read a lot have larger vocab than native speakers who didnt read a lot its possible to acquire language without conscious learning implications; dont force to speak, listening is key natural language approach to second language learning

1. storytelling - laguage partenr who is fluent in the language to explain magazine or children book

• no english
• no grammar
• no corrections
• no anxiety

2. read affective filter anxiety will block language aquistion TPR total physical response acquiring language through movement use hands and mime words sapir whorf hypothesis view that language determines thoguht

• underlying assumption of use of affirmations in cogntivie therapy people who are bilingual think diff in diff language diff personalities - china born students at uni of waterloo describe themselves in english and chinese - express positive in english negative in chinese reflect less emotion in second language speech perception and AI seperate voice of speaker from irrelevant backgourn noise pronounciation varies