Career & Lifestyle Development Theories, Exams of Psychology

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CPCE: Career & Lifestyle Development

Five most influential theories - Super, Holland, Gottfredson, Krumboltz, Saviskas Classification of career theories - Actuarial and Developmental Actuarial - theorists from this perspective focused on some 'structure' of the individual such as needs, traits, interests, etc., and designed a theory of how career development occurs from that basis. Developmental - theorists from this perspective viewed career development as occurring over time, usually through stages. This process of career development could include various 'structures' such as self-concept and need Vocational Development Stages - Growth, Exploratory, Establishment, Maintenance, Decline Growth Development Stage - Birth to 14-15, Development of capacity, interests, and self-concept. Exploratory Development Stage - 15-24 years. Tentative choices made Establishment Development Stage - 22-44 years. Trail (in work situations) and stabilize Maintenance Development Stage - 45-65, Continual adjustment process Decline Development Stage - 65+ years. Preretirement, work output issues and retirement. Later changed to disengagement Vocational Development Tasks - Crystallization, Specification, Implementation, Stabilization, Consolidation Ages no longer apply, can repeat or recycle throughout tasks Crystallization Development Task - Ages 14-18. formulating a general vocational goal through awareness Specification Development Task - Ages 18-21. Moving from a tentative to a specific vocational choice Implementation Development Task -

Ages 21-24. Completing training and entering employment. Stabilization Development Task - Ages 24-35. Confirming a preferred choice by performing the job. Consolidation Development Task - 35+ becoming established in a career, advancing, achieving status Nine major roles we play in life - Child, student, citizen, spouse, homemaker, parent, worker, leisure, pensioner. Four theaters - Home, community, school, workplace. Archway Model - Graphic representation of many determinants that comprise one's self-concept. One pillar represents the factors & variables within the individual that influence career development such as needs, aptitudes, interests, and achievements. The other pillar includes external factors such as family, community, and labor market. Between the tow pillars is the self of the individual. Career Pattern Study - examined the vocational behavior of 9th graders all the way into their 30's. Adolescents who are career mature and achieve in high school tend to be more career mature and successful as young adults. Holland Types - Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional Everyone has all six types in varying amounts Realistic - aggressive, prefers explicit tasks requiring physical manipulation; has poor interpersonal skills. Ex: Mechanic, technician Investigative - intellectual; prefers systematic, creative investigation activities; has poor persuasive and social skills. Ex: chemist, computer programmer Artistic - imaginative; prefers self-expression via physical, verbal, or material, dislikes systematic and ordered activities Ex: artist, editor Social - social; prefers activities that inform, develop, or enlighten others, dislikes activities involving tools or machines Ex: counselors, teachers Enterprising - extroverted; prefers leadership and persuasive roles; dislikes abstract, cautious activities Ex. manager, slaes personnel

Conventional - practical; prefers ordered, structured activities, dislikes ambiguous, and unsystematized tasks Instruments used to determine Holland Type - Vocational Preference Inventory and Self-Directed Search Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes - Most occupations in the United States have been assigned a Holland Type and can be found here Consistency (HT) - adjacent pairs of types are more psychologically alike than nonadjacent pairs of types Differentiation (HT) - an individual's profile of six types has significant highs(differentiated) and lows or the profile of six types tends to be flat(undifferentiated). Congruence (HT) - the individual's type and the environment type are at the same Vocational identity (HT) - high identity individuals are those who have a clear and stable picture of their interests and goals. Linda Gottfredson - Circumscription and Compromise- focuses on the vocational development processes experienced by children. Vocational self concept is central and influences occupational selection Circumscription (LG) - Narrow down occupations Compromise (LG) - opt out of unavailable or inappropriate occupations Four Stages of Career Development (LG) - Orientation to: Size and power, sex roles, social valuation, internal unique self Orientation to Size and Power - Ages 3-5. Children have neither; they are concrete thinkers and begin to understand what it means to be an adult. Even as young as age 3 they can name occupations they would like to do. Orientation to Sex Roles - Ages 6-8. There is greater awareness of values held by peers, family, and community; occupations vary greatly in social value-desirability Orientation to internal unique self - 14+. In occupational selection as a teenager or adult, internal factors such as aspirations, values, and interests are critical. Young children choose occupations -

that fit their sex Preadolescents choose occupations - which have social values consistent with their perceived social class. They may also rule out occupations which are inappropriate because of mismatch in ability, intelligence level or cultural factors. Teenagers/adults choose occupations - taking into consideration self-awareness of personal characteristics Zone of Acceptable Alternatives - Individuals develop a cognitive map of occupations based on sex-type, social value (prestige), and field of work (interest area). Occupations within this range are consistent with the individual's self concept. John Krumboltz - Learning Theory of Career Counseling Used Bandura's social learning theory to identify the principle concepts of his theory Learning Theory of Career Counseling - Important concepts include: reinforcement theory, cognitive information processing, and classical behaviorism Learning experiences over lifetime influence career choice Unplanned and chance events will influence an individuals career development Genetic Endowment and Special Abilities (LTCC) - this includes inherited qualities which may set limits on career opportunities Environmental Conditions and Events (LTCC) - Influence skill development, activities, and career preferences. Natural resources, economic conditions, and legislation may be involved. Instrumental and Associative Learning Experiences (LTCC) - Learning through reactions to consequences, results of actions, and through reactions to others. Reinforcement and non-reinforcement of behaviors and skills are important. Associative learning experience come from associations learning through observations and written materials. They influence an individuals perceptions Task Approach Skills (LTCC) - Skills acquired such as problem-solving, work habits, mental sets, and emotional and cognitive responses Career Beliefs Inventory (LTCC) - may be used to identify clients' mental barriers preventing them from taking actions. Planned Happenstance (LTCC) - Unplanned and chance events will influence an individuals' career development, and such occurrences should be expected and taken advantage of.

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma - Developmentalists that believed occupational choice progressed through three periods. Periods of occupational choice (Ginzberg) - Fantasy, Tentative, and Realistic Fantasy (Ginzberg) - Birth to 11. Play becomes work orientated Tentative (Ginzberg) - Ages 11-17. Four stages in this periods: interest, capacity, value, and transition Realistic (Ginzberg) - 17+. Three stages in this period: exploration, crystallization, and specification. Ann Roe - Needs approach. Believed that genetic factors, environmental experiences, and parent-child relations influenced the needs structure each child developed. Believed that careers were chosen to meet needs. Field-by-level Classification of Occupation - Developed by Ann Roe and has six levels and eight fields. Field-by-level: Levels - Professional & managerial (highest level) Professional & managerial (regular) Semi-professional & managerial Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled Field-by-level: Fields - Service, business contact, managerial, general cultural, arts and entertainment, technology, outdoor, and science Tiedeman's Decision-Making Model - Believed that career development occurred as part of cognitive development as one resolved ego- relevant crisis. Paralleled the eight psychosocial stages identified by Erikson. Saw life decisions and career decisions as integrally related. Phases of decision making - Anticipation or preoccupation Implementation or adjustment Anticipation or Preoccupation - Includes the following phases: Exploration Crystallization Choice

Clarification Implementation or Adjustment - Includes the following phases: Induction Reformation Intergration Tiedeman emphasized - the importance of the individual in the decision making process I-power - personal reality of the individual was at the center of this potential for self-improvement and subsequent self-development. Career development takes place (DMM) - Through a continuous process of differentiating one's ego development, processing developmental tasks, and resolving psychosocial crises Cognitive information processing & career development - Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, & Peterson presented a theory of career development based on cognitive information processing (CIP). A procedure for solving career problems was developed based on a series of assumptions which emphasize cognitions, information, and problem solving. CASVE Processing Skills - Communication, analysis, synthesis, valuing, execution Communication (CIP) - identifying the career-related needs of the client Analysis (CIP) - identifying the problem components and placing them in a conceptual framework Synthesis (CIP) - formulating course of action or alternatives Valuing (CIP) - judging each action as to it's potential for success or failure and impact on others. This is a prioritizing process Execution (CIP) - developing pans and implementation strategies Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Efficacy - Based on Bandura's social learning theory Self Efficacy (SCT) - an individual's belief that he or she can perform some task or be successful in some endeavor influences choice, performance, and persistence.

Self-efficacy can be strengthened through - learning experiences such as: personal performance accomplishments, vicarious learning, social persuasion, physiological states and reactions. Constructivism and Contextualism - Suggests that individuals construct their own reality or truth through their own way of organizing information. Becomes very subjective phenomenon and focuses on how individuals extract meaning from their present situation. Contextualism implies - that career development constant interplay of forces within the individual, with in the environment, and the interaction between the two. One cannot separate individuals from their environments and the individuals' perceptions and information organizing processes create their reality. Goals for Career Counselor (CC) - encourage the client to make meaning of his or her situation. Unraveling events (CC) - Because context is so important, unraveling envenoms into very small pieces may be counterproductive and reduce the possibility for constructing personal meaning. Focus of attention (cc) - is actions which are cognitively and socially based. Three perspectives of action (CC) - Behavior which occurs, Internal state (affect) Their social meaning Mark Savickas - proponent of a postmodern career counseling approach based on career construction theory. View of counselor (MS) - not as the expert with infallible scores from inventories but rather as an active agent in assisting career clients to make sense of their life and work in order to be successful and satisfied. Perspective of personality (CCT) - personality types, developmental tasks, and life themes Personality types (CCT) - may be conceptualized as those stemming from the work of Holland and others Developmental tasks (CCT) - were initially identified by Super and through the model presented by Bandura Life themes (CCT) - relate to the stories individuals experience and how they hold them together in a coherent manner.

Stories and meaning (CCT) - are provide by clients (a narrative approach to career counseling) in order to construct a reality in line with their social and cultural backgrounds, as well as experiences. H.B. Gelatt - focuses on the decision-making process and outlines a fairly traditional five step process Decision-making process (Gelatt) - Recognize a need to make a decision Collect data and look at courses of action Besides looking at courses of action Examine potential outcomes and probability Attend to your value system Evaluate and make a decision, and the decision can be investigatory or permanent Trait and Factory - Actuarial or matching approach Developed by Frank Parsons Frank Parson wrote - Choosing a Vocation Trait-factor means you - study the individual (trait) survey occupations (factors) Match the person with an occupation (using true reasoning) Williamson six steps (TF) - analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling, and follow-up Sociological and situational mode of career development - There are sociological reasons why individuals choose the work that they do. Factors that influence occupation choice(SSM) - People choose what they know (occupations family members may expose them to) Ethinc group membership and cultural factors influence individuals toward or away from certain jobs and career. risk behavior, work identity, and career mobility. Situationally, the environment and its opportunities influence the work an individual does - Labor market conditions, educational/training and employment opportunities, as well as the mix of employers will impact what is available and often determines an individual's career development John Crites - Comprehensive model of career counseling Three Diagnosis of the Career Problem (JC) - Differential--what are the problems

Dynamic--why have the problems occurred Decisional--how are the problems being dealt with After diagnosis, Crites advocated - client-centered and developmental counseling to begin with, later followed by the use of psychodynamic techniques such as interpretation, finally followed by trait-factor and behavioral approaches. Vocational maturity - continuous developmental process moving through a series of stages and tasks Factors which might affect decision making (DM) - Risk taking style Investment (by chooser, such as time, money, deferred gratification) Personal Values Self0efficacy (belief that the individual can perform the behavior necessary) Career theory limitations - Data is from 1950's/1960's sampled on young, white, middle-cass males, college-educated Indecisiveness - an ongoing trait of the individual which implies that even with more information, the individual has problems making a decision. (True beyond the career domain) Personal counseling may be necessary before career counseling is helpful Career development - a lifelong process in which we develop values, skills, interests, and knowledge of the world of work. In this process, we also make decisions and implement these decisions through education and work. Job - one person in one position doing a set of tasks occupation - definable work activity found in many locations (counseling, welding) Career (narrow) - series of jobs and occupations one does Career (middle) - the education, training, work experience, and related professional activities associated with one's occupation Career (broad/Super) - all of the work and other elif erodes one engages in Lifestyle - refers to the person's orientation and preference in regard to career, family, leisure, place of residence, work climate, and overall style of life.

Leisure - includes periods of time in which an individual engages in activities or pursuits chosen freely such as relaxation, hobbies, sports, travel, and other outdoor or indoor activities Compensate - in terms of using skills, abilities, interests that you don't use at work Spillover - using the same kind of activities, using the same skills you use at work Career guidance - assists individuals in understanding and acting upon self-knowledge of opportunities in work, education, and leisure, and to develop decision-making skills Career Counseling - the emphasis is on career development of an individual with special attention to values and attributes, in a dynamic environment with a focus of self-understanding, career information, and career planning and decision making Personal vs. Career counseling - most professionals believe that career counseling is personal counseling. Clients are holistic with problems and concerns that are multifaceted and overlap in several domains of life including home, work, and family Career counseling process - Establish a relationship problem identification assessment provide information decision making implementation and followup Establish a relationship - Career counseling is built upon a relationship between a career counselor and a client. In addition to helpful personality characteristics of the counselor, certain conditions experienced by the client in career counseling will facilitate sharing of issues with the career counselor Problem identification - As a result of sharing, the career counselor and client should develop a better understanding of the issues or problems confronting the client. Without this information, career counseling will lack direction and focus. Assessment - is a continuous process and occurs from the moment the career counselor meets the client. Might include the use of standardized and non standardized instruments. Some level of assessment continues until termination Provide information -

This step of the career counseling process relies on the carer counselor as expert to provide pertinent information. the focus here is in informing the client of possibilities, opportunities, and resources helpful in addressing her or his specific career problem. Often, much of this information can be gathered by the client with appropriate direction, rather than giving to the client. Decision making - Step in career counseling after information is provided Implementation and follow-up - decision made in the previous set in the process is implemented. This will highly idiosyncratic depending upon the the individual, her or his circumstance, and the educational, employment, or other opportunities found in the environment. Follow up with the client should occur as agreed upon