CSET- Spanish Subtest 1 100% VERIFIED ANSWERS 2024/2025 CORRECT, Exams of Spanish Language

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CSET- Spanish Subtest 1 100%

VERIFIED ANSWERS

2024/2025 CORRECT

Linguistic The scientific study of the language, how it is put together and how it functions. It looks at the interplay of sound (phonetic) and meaning (semantics and pragmatics). Phonetics The Study of human speech sounds Grammar Influenced by both sound and meaning (Morphology, syntax, and phonology). Pragmatics The Study of the use of language in context... deals with how listeners arrive at intended meaning of speaking. Phonology The Branch of linguistics which studies how sounds are organized, and used in natural language. Ex: time [t] & dime [d] Identical words, except beginning sounds. Allophone Phones which are phonetically similar but not the same and which are treated as the same in linguistic communication; or the sound which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning. Ex: pat, spin, cup These are sounds that are perceptibly different but do not distinguish words. P^h - Pat (aspirated)

P- Spin (not aspirated) P^o- Cup (your lips remain closed; /p/ is unreleased) Allophone Is a set of multiple spoken sounds (or phones) used to pronounce a single phoneme. For example, [p^h] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are multiple spoken sounds for the phoneme /p/ in the English language. Although a phoneme's variation of spoken sounds are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific alternative sound selected in a given situation is often predictable. Changing the alternative sounds used by native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning of a word but the results may sound non-native or unintelligible. Native speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single distinctive sound in that language and are "both unaware of and even shocked by "all the different variations used to pronounce single phonemes. Morphology The study of the structure of the words and how words are formed. Morphemes Minimal units of words that have a meaning and cannot be subdivided any further. There are two types. Bound Morphemes The smallest unit that has meaning but cannot stand alone. (A morpheme that must be attached to another morpheme and cannot stand alone.) Affix are often this type of morpheme. It also includes prefixes (added to the beginning of another morpheme), suffices (added to the end), infixes (inserted into other morphemes), and circumfixes (attached to another morpheme at the beginning and end) Ex: o, as, a, amos, an (the ending of any grammatical change in a verb. Free Morphemes The smallest unit that has meaning and can stand alone. (or A morphene that does not need to be attached to another morpheme and can stand alone)

1. open class/ lexical/content

• verb, noun, adjective, and adverb.

2. closed class/function/grammatical Ex. el, las, los, nos,vos

• Conjuctions, prepositons, articles, and pronouns Derivational These are added to morphemes to form entirely new words that may or may not be the same part of speech. Ex.: Cloud, cloudy, happiness, greenish, establishment) Inflectional These are added to the end of an existing word for purely grammatical reasons, there are 8 in English. They do not alter the syntactic behavior of the word. Ex. - ed past tense, - s plural, - ing progressive Root Morphemes ( and not affixes) that must be attached to another morpheme and do not have a meaning of their own. Ex. - ceive in perceive
• mit in submit Syntax The study of sentence structure (grammar). How words are arranged to form sentences. Links sound patterns and meanings. Knowing the structure of a language entails knowing the rules of sentence formation in that language. Semantics The study of meaning and language. The analysis of the meaning of words, phrases, sentences. The way in which sounds and meanings are related. Studies the way in which language expressions have meaning. Descriptive grammar The structure of a language as it's actually used by speakers and writers. It represents the unconscious knowledge of a language. It does not teach the rules of a language, but rather describe

rules that are already known. Ex. Me likes apples. (incorrect) I like apples. (correct) Prescriptive grammar The structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. It dictates what a speaker's grammar should be and they include teaching grammars, which are written to help their language. Basic principles of Grammar There are two types of grammars: descriptive and prescriptive. Universal Grammar The principles that contain the basics of all possible human language forms, which is the universal concepts and properties that are shared by all languages. Productivity in Linguistics The amount a native speaker uses a particular grammatical or syntactic process in their language. A reference to the extend that a given process is not bound in its application to a certain input. For instance the prefixation of re- to verbs in modern English is productive because this can be done with practically all verbs. The term also refers - in syntax- to the ability of speakers to produce an unlimited number of sentences using a limited set of structures. Ex. re-think, re-do, re-write, re-use. Productive Rule of Language The property of the language-system which enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. One that works for more than one or two words or constructions in the language: in English and in French, pluralizing with some form of - s or - es. Ex. the bosses, les haricots verts (the green beans). This is a productive or regular rule. Distinction Between Deep Structure & Surface Structure

Proposed by Chomsky in his Standard Theory of Transformational Grammar: Every sentence has 2 levels of structure, one which is obvious on the surface and another which is deep and abstract. These are related by a processes called Transformations. Classification of language into families and branches A set of languages deriving from common ancestor or "parent." Language with a significant number of common features in phonology, morphology and syntax are said to belong to the same language family. Subdivisions of a language family are called "branches." Different perspectives on the study of language Synchronic vs. Diachronic, how the system works at a point in time (synchronic) vs. how the language has changed over a period of time (diachronic). Synchronic linguistics Analysis of language at a single point in time. Diachronic linguistics Historical linguistics or the study of language change. The different types of changes that languages undergo at all levels Phonetic and phonological morphological and syntactic lexical and semantic Mechanisms by which language change occurs Umlaut, phonemic splits, mergers, borrowing, euphemisms, folk etymologies, metaphors and taboos Utterances Manner of speaking. Any speech sequence consisting of one or more words and preceded and followed by silence: it may be coextensive with a sentence. A bit of spoken language. It could be anything from "Ugh!" to a full sentence. It means "to say." So when you're saying something, you're doing this. Saying "24" in math class is doing this. A police

officer yelling "Stop!" is doing this. Saying "Good boy!" to your dog is this. Even a long speech by the President is this. If you can't hear it, it's not this.. Umlaut The change of a vowel (as \ü\ to \ē\ in goose, geese) that is caused by partial assimilation to a succeeding sound or that occurs as a reflex of the former presence of a succeeding sound which has been lost or altered Phonemic Merger Where two (or more) phonemes merge and become indistinguishable. Ex. The 'cot-caught merger'... the sound change causes the vowel in caught, talk, and small to be pronounced like the vowel in cot, rock, and doll, so that cot and caught, for example, become homophones, and the two vowels merge into a single phoneme. The change does not affect a vowel followed by /r/, so barn and born remain distinct, and starring and warning do not rhyme. Phonemic Split A split in phonology is where a once identical phoneme diverges in different instances. In this case a phoneme at an early stage of the language is divided into two phonemes over time. Usually this happens when a phoneme has two allophones appearing in different environments, but sound change eliminates the distinction between the two environments. Borrowing When a word from one language that has been adapted for use in another. Euphemisms The substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or something unpleasant; the expression so substituted using "eliminate" as another way to say "kill." Cougar for example is a woman who has reached mid-life, who is single, financially secure and on the lookout for relationships with younger men- as in "prey." Folk Etymologies In linguistics when a form of a word changes so that it better matches its popular rationalization. Typically this happens either to analyzable foreign words or to compounds where the word

underlying one part of the compound becomes obsolete. Cockroach comes from the Spanish word cucaracha. As with woodchuck, the Spanish word was transformed into English by substituting similar-sounding morphemes: cock (as in rooster) and roach (which at that time was simply the name of a type of fish). There wasn't anything about cockroach that suggested "rooster" or "fish," of course; it's simply a matter of the sounds fitting. The same thing happened with the word polecat (from French poule chat, a cat that feeds on poultry) and ten-gallon hat (from Spanish galón, a braid), English speakers also mistook a napron for an apron, and even an ewt for a newt. Metaphors A figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them. Ex. drowning in money; broadly: figurative language. Taboos Forbidden to profane use or contact because of what are held to be dangerous supernatural powers Ex. 1)Sex is a taboo subject for many people.

2. In this company, dating a coworker is considered taboo. Pragmatics The study in linguistics of how people comprehend and produce a communicative act or speech act in a concrete speech situation which usually a conversation (hence conversation analysis). It distinguishes two intents or meanings in each utterance or communicative act of verbal communication. One is the informative intent or the sentence meaning, and the other the communicative intent or speaker meaning (Leech, 1983; Sperber and Wilson, 1986). The ability to comprehend and produce a communicative act is referred to as pragmatic competence (Krasper,
3. which often includes one's knowledge about the social distance, social status between the speakers involved, the cultural knowledge such as politeness, and the linguistic knowledge explicit and implicit. Discourse Analysis Is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, vocal, or sign language use or any significant semiotic event. The objects of this is- discourse, writing, conversation, communicative event- are variously defined in terms of coherent sequences of sentences, propositions, speech, or turns-at-talk. Contrary to much of traditional linguistics, this is not only study language use 'beyond

the sentence boundary', but also prefer to analyze 'naturally occurring' language use, and not invented examples. Theory of Speech Acts A minimal functional unit in human communication. Just as a word (refusal) is the smallest free form found in language and a morpheme is the smallest unit of a language that carries information about meaning (-al in refuse-al makes it a noun), the basic unit of communication is a speech act (the speech act of refusal). This attempts to explain how speakers use language to accomplish intended actions and how hearers infer intended meaning form what is said. Although these studies are now considered a sub-discipline of cross-cultural pragmatics, they actually take their origin in the philosophy of language. This can be analyzed on three different levels; propositional, illocutionary, and perlocutionary meaning. Prepositional Meaning The literal meaning of what is said. Ex. "It's hot in here." Illocutionary Meaning The social function of what is said. Ex. "it's hot in here"- could be

• an indirect request for someone to open the window
• an indirect refusal to close the window because someone is cold
• a complain implying that someone should know better than to keep the windows closed (expressed emphatically) Perlocutionary Meaning The effect of what is said "It's hot in here" could result in someone opening the windows. Classification for Types of Illocutions Assertive: an illocutionary act that represents a state of affairs. E.g. stating, claiming, hypothesizing, describing, telling, insisting, suggesting, asserting, or swearing that something is the case Directive: an illocutionary act for getting the addressee to do something.

E.g. ordering, commanding, daring, defying, challenging Commissive: an illocutionary act for getting the speaker (i.e. the one performing the speech act) to do something. E.g. promising, threatening, intending, vowing to do or to refrain from doing something Expressive: an illocutionary act that expresses the mental state of the speaker about an event presumed to be true.. E.g. congratulating, thanking, deploring, condoling, welcoming, apologizing Declaration: an illocutionary act that brings into existence the state of affairs to which it refers. E.g. blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing sentence, excommunicating Constatives Utterrances Words that describe a situation, speech that describes facts or provides information. Ex. No Running, sign describing your gait. Performatives Utterances Words that incite/inspire action, speech that constitutes an act. Ex. Are you not running because the sign prohibits it Language Development in Children Children develop language in a set sequence of stages, although sometimes particular skills develop at slightly different ages.

• Three- months-old infants can distinguish between the phonemes from any language.
• At around 6 months, infants begin babbling, or producing sounds that resemble many different languages. As time goes on, these sounds begin to resemble more closely the words of the languages the infant hears.
• At about 13 months, children begin to produce simple single words.
• By about 24 months, children begin to combine two or three words to make short sentences. At this stage, their speech is usually telegraphic. Telegraphic speech, like telegrams contains no articles or prepositions
• By about age three years, children can usually use tenses and plurals

• Children's language abilities continue to grow throughout the school-age years. They become able to recognize ambiguity and sarcasm in language and to use metaphors and puns. These abilities arise from meta-linguistic awareness, or the capacity to think about how language is used. Child Language and Second Language Acquisition Linguistic competence develops in stages, from babbling to one word to two word, then telegraphic speech. Babbling is now considered the earliest form of processing the ability to speak because infants will produce sounds based on what language input they receive. One word sentences (holophrastic speech) are generally monosyllabic in consonant-vowel clusters. During two word stage, there are no syntactic or morphological markers, no inflections for plural or past tense, and pronouns are rare, but the intonation contour extends over the whole utterance. Telegraphic speech lacks function words and only carries the open class content words, so that the sentences sound like a telegram. Critical Age Hypothesis A suggestion that there is a critical age for language acquisition without the need for special teaching or learning. During this critical period, language learning proceeds quickly and easily. After this period, the acquisition of grammar is difficult, and for some people, never fully achieved. cases of children reared in social isolation have been used for testing the critical age hypothesis. None of the children who had little human contact were able to speak any language once reintroduced into society. Even the children who received linguistic input after being reintroduced to society were unable to fully develop language skills. These cases of isolated children, and of deaf children, show that humans cannot fully acquire any language to which they are exposed unless they are within the critical age. Beyond this age, human are unable to acquire much of syntax and inflectional morphology. At least for humans, this critical age does not pertain to all of language, but to specific parts of the grammar. The Poverty of the Stimulus This states that children seem to learn or know the aspects if grammar for which they receive no information. In addition, children do not produce sentences that could not be sentences in some human language. The principles of Universal Grammar underlie the specific grammars of all languages and determined faculty of the left hemisphere, and there is little doubt that the brain is specially equipped for acquisition of human language.

Receptive before Expressive language Children's ability to understand language develops faster than their ability to speak it. Taking in is the ability to understand language, and conveying is the ability to use language to communicate. If a mother tells her 15 month old child to put the toy back in the toy chest, he may follow her instructions even though he can't repeat them himself. Environmental Influences on Language Acquisition According to B. F. Skinner, a major proponent of the idea that language depends largely on environment, language is acquired through principles of conditioning, including association, imitation, and reinforcement. He said that Children learn words by associating sounds with objects, actions, and events. They also learn words and syntax by imitating others. Adults enable children to learn words and syntax by reinforcing correct speech. Noam Chomsky The main proponent of the view that biological influences bring about language development. He argues that human brains have a language acquisition device (LAD), an inmate mechanism or process that allows children to develop language skills. His views state that all children are born with a universal grammar, which makes them receptive to the common features of all languages. Because of this hard-wired background in grammar, children easily pick up a language when they are exposed to its particular grammar. Evidence for an innate human capacity to acquire language skills comes from the following observations.

• the stages of language development occur at about the same ages in most children, even though different children experience very different environments.
• children's language development follows a similar pattern across cultures.
• children generally acquire language skills quickly and effortlessly.
• Deaf children who have not been exposed to a language may make up their own language. These languages resemble each other in sentence structure, even when they are created in different cultures. Biology and Environment Some researchers have proposed theories that emphasize the importance of both nature and nurture in language acquisition. These theorists believe that humans do have an innate capacity for

acquiring the rules of language. However, they believe that children develop language skills through interaction with others rather than acquire the knowledge automatically. Homonyms A word that has the same pronunciation as another;however, they differ from each other in meaning, origin, and usually spelling. Ex. de & dé (dé first- and third- person singular subjunctive form of dar [to give]) el (the) & él (he) mas (but) & más (more) sé (I know) & se (a reflexive and indirect object pronoun used in various ways) si (if) & sí (yes) sólo (only 'adverb') & solo (alone 'adjective') Diacritical accents Are used to distinguish words with different meanings. Changes that occur in the TL over time Spanish being influenced by other languages in bordering regions or immigrants. Ex. Carro for car instead of coche.

• Diphthongization of Latin stressed short E and O in closed syllables as well as open. Ex. tiempo, puerta vs. 'Portuguese' tempo, porta
• Devoicing and further develoment of the medieval Spanish sibilants, producing 1) the velar fricative [X] in words such has hablar, hijo, gente & any many dialects of Spain the interdental in words such as cinco, hacer & lazo. Honorifics A grammatical form, typically a word or affix, that is socially directly provided. It expresses, as at least part of its meaning, the relative social status of the speaker with the addressee, a bystander, or some other referent. Spanish has a number of forms that may be used with or substitutes for names. Ex. Doctor in Colombia is used for any respected figure regardless of whether they have a doctoral degree or not. Intimate friends and relatives are addressed as tú, addressing a relative stranger as tú is considered

disrespectful or provocative, except when it's directed to a person notably younger than the speaker. Mr. (senor) Sir. (senor) Mrs. (senora) Ms. (senorita) Doctor (doctor)