CSET Spanish Subtest 2 100% VERIFIED ANSWERS 2024/2025 CORRECT, Exams of Political Systems

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CSET Spanish Subtest 2 100%

VERIFIED ANSWERS

2024/2025 CORRECT

Spain today (politics, economy, geography, culture)

• Democracy under parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Member of EU
• Majority Roman Catholic (religious freedom)
• Tourism is one of the main sources of income.
• Important developers/producers of renewable energy , in particular solar power.
• strong economy, high quality of life
• SW Europe, Iberian Peninsula to the south of France and Andorra and to the east of Portugal. It has coastlines on the Bay of Biscay (a part of the Atlantic Ocean) and the Mediterranean Sea.
• mostly flat plains + Pyrenees Mountains
• siesta/lunch from 2- 5
• tapas (appetizers), paella , gazpacho , wine
• epiphany/three kings day (día de los reyes): Jan.6th, leave out shoes for gifts
• flamenco music and bullfights Romans in Spain 200BCE-500CE Spanish Cinema
• 1930s: Luis Buñuel was the first Spanish director to be recognized internationally (films: Belle de Jour, Ese oscuro objeto del deseo), associated with the surrealist movement.
• Carlos Saura (La Madriguera, Cría Cuervos, Sweet Hours): world-known Spanish director in the 1950s.
• Present: Pedro Almodóvar's works (Todo acerca de mi madre, Volver) are well known in both Europe and the Americas.

Zarzuela

**- Performance art mixing music and theater

• popular with royalty/elite in 17th ce. Spain,
• opera - > decline in popularity (but continued in Cuba, etc.) until 19th and 20th ce.**
• Amadeo Vives=famous composer Spanish Architecture
• varied across history
• significant Roman influence from when it was part of the Roman empire
• then incorp. Arab features , esp. in Córdoba, under Moors domination
• Romanesque and gothic elements integrated later
• 2oth ce. --> Modernism (Antoni Gaudí, Barcelona)
• contemporary architects internationally recognized (Moneo, Calavatra) Diego Velázquez
• Leading artist of Spanish Golden Age (17th ce.)
• Painter from Seville
• Court painter for King Philip IV
• historical and cultural portraits of royalty, nobles, commoners
• most famous painting = Las Meninas ~Baroque portrayal of Margarita (King's daughter) surrounded by maids of honor & members of court ~very complex, plays with illusion/reality/perspective/audience ~In Madrid museum, widely analyzed
• Inspiration/model for many future artists Frida Kahlo
• 20th ce. Mexican painter , married Diego Rivera
• Had polio as a child, other health issues
• Used bright colors and simple/primitive forms, rooted in Mexican + Amerindian culture
• influenced by surrealism
• known for self-portraits + depictions of female form Ernesto Sábato

• Argentine writer
• started writing+painting after WWII
• translated science books, wrote many essays+articles on literature, science, metaphysics, and politics Fernando Botero
• present-day Colombian painter
• Figurative paintings, uses exaggerated + disproportionate volumes to depict human figure , adding humorous details to show criticism + irony
• his style = Boterismo Three Tenors
• 1990's and 2000's
• Spaniards: Plácido Domingo and José Carreras
• Pavarotti = Italian
• Been in many famous operas (Carmen, Madame Butterfly, etc.) Francisco Goya
• (18th ce.), Spanish Painter
• baroque->rococo->neoclassicism+expressionism
• first artist to paint what he wanted instead of what church/king told him to paint
• great influence for modern artists
• mostly historic paintings José Clemente Orozco
• Mexican painter, one of 3 main Mexican muralists, painted murals after the Mexican revolution
• focused on revolution, human condition , pre-Colombian culture
• messages of social justice for working class and indigenous people Diego Rivera
• Mexican painter, one of 3 main Mexican muralists, painted murals after the Mexican revolution
• One of most famous muralists in the world
• influenced by Italian renaissance and Russian communist movement
• focused on revolution, revalorization of indigenous Mexican roots , symbols + historical figures from

colonial period

• very political artistic messages David Alfaro Siquieros
• Mexican painter, one of 3 main Mexican muralists, painted murals after the Mexican revolution
• focused on revolution, Pre-Colombian culture and its relationship with colonial culture in Mexico
• more realistic works
• very influenced by politics, Marxist messages Celia Cruz
• Cuban singer known as the queen of salsa
• her music became a worldwide success
• most influential figure of Cuban music in 20th ce. Salvador Dalí
• 20th ce. Spanish surrealist painter , started as a cubist
• influenced by other artists in Paris
• highly imaginative, bizarre works
• "La persistencia de la memoria" (melting clocks) Isabel Allende
• (1950s-) Writer , born in Peru, considered Chilean
• works mixed fantastic & real ( magic realism )
• "La casa de los espiritus": 4 generations of Chilean family, examines sociopolitical issues in postcolonial Chile Mario Vargas Llosa
• (1940s-) Peruvian writer , wrote novels + political narrative pieces
• genre: realism, political topics
• examines vulgarity of human nature
• received Nobel Prize for literature in 2010 Alhambra

• Large palace complex built in 12th-13th ce. Granada when Moors occupied Spain
• When Spaniards recovered land, Catholic kings built their own palaces, so Alhambra has both Islamic and Christian architectural elements
• known for ornamentation (marble, stucco, tile)
• important tourist site, UNESCO world heritage site Popol Vuh (El libro de consejo)
• Written in Mayan-Quiché language, translated to Spanish, controversy over who wrote and translated book
• Compilation of Mayan myths explaining creation of world, Mayan history, some Mayan traditions
• very important source about pre-Colombian Mayan people Pablo Picasso
• (late 19th, 20th ce.) Spanish painter, known for cubist paintings and surrealist works
• also book illustrations and ceramics
• inspired by Goya, etc., political inspiration
• hated the fascist government of Franco, turned to communism
• prolific, internationally famous artist
• "Guernica" Felix Lope de Vega
• (16th, 17th ce.) Spanish writer , wrote poetry, plays, prose
• Founded Teatro Nacional de España, known as father of modern comedy
• topics: national history, honor
• "El perro de hortelano," "El peregrino," "Rimas Sacras" Julio Cortazar
• (20th ce.) important Argentine author , wrote short stories, essays, novels
• great influence in narrative art
• surrealist, deals with fantasy, supernatural, absurd
• used realistic images of the monstrous
• "Rayuela," "Axolotl" Horacio Quiroga

• (late 19th, early 20th ce.) Uruguayan writer, known for short stories
• influenced by Edgar Allan Poe; elements of horror, American nature, supernatural, the bizarre
• main work of poetry = "Arrecifes de coral" Juan Rulfo
• Mexican writer , novels + short stories
• most profound Mexican prose writer of 40's
• magical realism (fantastic + supernatural)
• historical stories based on ignorant, poor, desolated country people
• social injustice, hard life, pain, suffering
• "Pedro Paramo" Jorge Luis Borges
• (20th ce.) One of best-known Spanish language writers
• Argentine writer (poetry, essays, stories)
• Founded literary movement Ultraismo (anti-modernism)
• Fantastical works, metaphysical problems
• Genre: cosmovision
• "El Aleph" Gabriel Garcia Marquez
• (20th ce.) Colombian writer, most known for "100 años de soledad"
• magical realism, examine relationships between space and time, expose Colombian life and the relationship between the social and political in everyday life
• won Nobel Prize for literature in 1982 Carlos Fuentes
• (20th ce., L.A. Boom) Mexican writer , known for his novels
• examines Mexican culture and seeks a way to preserve it
• universal themes and aspects of human psychology
• based in historical and explore real themes but in fictional works
• "Chac Mool" José Enrique Rodó

• (late 19th, early 20th ce.) Uruguayan writer , modernistic essays
• known as best modernist prose writer
• messages: warning about N. American influence in Latin America, rejecting materialism, embracing culture, democracy, morality, idealism
• "Ariel" as intellectual guide for his generation Domingo Faustino Sarmiento
• Argentine writer and politician , essays and novels
• Argentine president from 1868- 1874
• Also teacher, interested in education
• Fight against ignorance, chieftains, dictators Rubén Darío
• (late 19th, early 20th ce.) Nicaraguan writer, major figure of modernism
• Best known for poetry, searching for ideal beauty
• wrote about problems caused by materialism
• used new meter + rhythms that transformed poetry José Martí
• (late 19th ce.) Cuban writer and politician , known as one of most important writers of his time
• modernistic pieces, messages of freedom and liberalism
• hero of Cuban independence , fought against Spaniards Octavio Paz
• (20th ce.) Mexican poet and essayist
• unique writing (not idealist or symbolist)
• topics: loneliness and existential restlessness
• Nobel Prize in lit. in 1990 Pablo Neruda
• Chilean poet w/ Marxist convictions
• identified w/ victims of wars, social injustice, tyranny
• one of most important 20th ce. poets

• modernistic works, celebrating nature and American man Nobel Prize in lit. in 1971 José de San Martin
• Argentine general, known as liberator of Argentina, Chile, Peru
• Fought w/ Spaniards (against French) in Spain's war of independence
• Fought against Spaniards for independence of Latin American countries
• Organized the army of the Andes, unified several independence movements Cristobal Colón
• Italian navigator, sailed West to find route to the East, under approval of Catholic kings of Spain (after denied by King of Portugal)
• Ships: Pinta, Niña, Santa Maria
• arrived at New World in 1492 thinking it was the East Indies
• Considered first European "discoverer" of the Americas , made several trips there but not credited until after death
• criticized for terrible treatment of natives Miguel Hidalgo
• 18th ce. Mexican priest and patriot
• Known as the father of the country, initiator of the independence , Father Hidalgo
• his "cry of Dolores" started the Mexican war of independence from Spain
• also important figure because he ended slavery and fought for the rights of Mexican indigenous people
• Succeeded in establishing national government, but executed soon after Simón Bolivar
• known as liberator of Venezuela
• also helped Peru and modern day Bolivia to obtain independence
• most important man of South American independence wars
• wrote the constitution for Republic of Bolivia Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz

- (17th ce.) most important American author of lyric poetry

• lived in Mexico , wrote poetry, plays, prose - many works about disadvantages of being a woman
• nun, used solitude to escape world
• important representative of the baroque Hernán Cortés
• very successful Spanish conquistador
• Founded La Española (now D.R. and Haiti) in his first trip to the New World
• Conquered Cuba, then went to Mexico
• known as conqueror of the Aztecs: took advantage of his alliance with Aztec enemy tribes to defeat the empire
• Governor and General Captain of Nueva Española
• responsible for abuse of native people General Francisco Franco
• in 1934 led campaign against Republican government-->divided Spain into leftists and rightists
• In Spanish Civil War, Franco defeated Republicans, established absolute dictatorship (40 years)
• Under Franco, political prisoners=scientists, artists, writers, teachers
• his dictatorship was supported by church and army, defined by oppression, lack of freedom, ultranationalism, anti-liberalism, militarism, fascism
• He ruled until his death in 1975 Miguel de Unamuno
• Author from group of Spanish writers affected by moral/political/social crisis in late 19th ce. Spain
• message that Spain should abandon traditions, integrate w/ Europe Benito Peréz Galdós
• Spanish author known for historic novels which mixed reality and fiction
• goal to find/analyze origins of 19th ce. Spanish revolution Emilia Pardo Bazán
• important novelist from late 19th ce.
• tried to introduce naturalism to Spain, study human condition

Federico Garcia Lorca

• (early 20th ce.) wrote dramatic pieces, poetry, theater
• super-realist
• offers separate world with creations that oscillate between reality and fantasy
• assassinated after start of Spanish civil war
• "La casa de Bernarda Alba" Alfonso X (Alfonso el Sabio)
• King of Castilla-León 1252- 1284
• important for decision to use Castilian as official language of Kingdom (Spanish became more important than other dialects) Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra
• (16th ce.) writer, wrote most popular Spanish novel "Don Quijote de la Mancha" (1615)
• "Don Quijote": adventures of Alonso Quijano who goes crazy after reading too many chivalric novels, believes he is traveling knight Don Quijote, adventures with friend Sancho Panza, fights windmills thinking they are giants Bartolomé de las Casas
• Dominican friar who fought for freedom and native rights in early days of colonization (opposed abuse/exploitation of indigenous people) Augusto Pinochet
• Chile's dictator 1974- 1990
• Operation Condor, effort to intimidate and murder leftist opposition leaders
• human rights violations Fidel Castro
• fiery revolutionary and statesman, beacon of anti-imperialist resistance
• orchestrated Cuban revolution
• Ruled in 1959, Cuban dictator until 2008
• communist policies and alliance with USSR--> tensions with USA
• thousands of dissidents killed trying to flee

Rigoberta Menchú

• 1992 Nobel Peace Prize
• world leader in native rights Che Guevara
• prominent communist figure/ revolutionary leader in Cuban Revolution
• guerrilla leader in S. America
• martyred hero
• leftist radicalism and anti-imperialism Cesar Chavez
• Mexican American labor leader and civil rights activist (60s) Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand
• marriage --> Christian unification of Spain (Castile and Aragon) in 1469
• supported Christopher Columbus Aztecs
• Indigenous group in what is now Central Mexico 1300- 1521
• Before Cortés, most powerful group in Mesoamerica
• best known leaders: Montezuma I and II
• capital of empire: Tenochtitlan
• very developed society w/ different classes
• believed in daily sacrifice of human heart to please the sun and make sure it would shine every day
• main gods: Quetzalcoatl (god of life) , Huitziilopochtli (god of sun & war), Coatlicue (mother goddess)
• language Nahuatl Mayans
• 2000 BC-900AD - 1500AD-Present
• Inhabited today's Yucatan (Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize)
• One of most advanced cultures in Pre-Colombian world

• intellectuals, arithmetic system, calendar, hieroglyphic writing
• practiced human sacrifice to appease gods
• Gods: Itzamná (supreme god), gods of sun, moon, rain
• Language Mayan
• Historic sites: Palenque, Tikal, Chichen Itza Incas
• 1200 - 1438 - 1532
• Inhabited region now Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile
• Advanced culture: social structure based on clans (allyu) and in communal agriculture
• extended empire over weaker neighboring tribes
• tyrannical policy, used violence to control subjects
• historical sites: Machu Picchu , Cuzco
• Main gods: Inti (sun god), Viracocha (supreme god)
• not as advanced as others artistically (but architecture was important)
• Language Quechua (still spoken in parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador)
• practiced human sacrifices (children & virgins) to please gods based on agricultural cycle Inquisition
• court established during reign of Ferdinand and Isabela in 1480
• purpose to discover and punish heretics, investigate crimes against the faith (witchcraft, bigamy, blasphemy, possession of forbidden books)
• main motivation to ensure orthodoxy of Jewish + Muslim converts to Christianity
• intensified after royal decrees in 1492 and 1501 ordering all Jews & Muslims to convert to Christianity or leave the country
• Inquisition courts used torture during interrogations
• operated in Spain and Nueva España
• abolished in 1834 Treaty of Tordesillas (1493) treaty to define boundary between Spanish and Portuguese possessions in the newly discovered Americas. Spanish Conquest of Aztecs

1519 - 1521

Spanish Conquest of Incas 1537 - 1572 with help of Francisco Pizarro Spanish Armada

• strong fleet of over 130 ships and 20,000 sailors
• at its strongest, considered invincible
• fleet defeated in 1588 when King Felipe II sent it to England to try to destroy Queen Elizabeth I
• defeat of fleet considered historical point when Spanish empire began to decline
• Spain would never have same importance/power in Europe as before defeat Venezuela begins independence movement in Latin America 1811 - 1898 Venezuela declares independence, and many Latin American countries follow suit. US construction of the Panama Canal 1904 - 1914 connects Atlantic and Pacific Oceans Spanish Civil War
• between nationalists (under control of General Franco) and republicans (anarchists, socialists, communists)
• started in 1936 when Franco led campaign against republicans
• war divided communities, families, friends
• both sides committed atrocities against each other
• after rebellion in Morocco, big cities w/ big armies fell under control of Franco
• Franco extended power w/ help of Nazis and Italian fascists
• Franquists defeated republicans in 1939
• afterwards, Franco established his dictatorship Bourbons
• European royal house, had significant influence in Europe
• Carlos II of Spain = most famous Spanish Bourbon

• many of the reforms Bourbons implemented had a big impact on Spain and colonies in New World: restricting Creole power, reestablish Spanish supremacy over the colonies (18th century) Reconquista
• refers to Spaniards' attempt to recover their land from the control of Muslims, who had invaded Spain in 711, and to restore united faith (Christianity, specifically Catholicism)
• process took from 712- 1492
• Spaniards began gradual reconquering process almost right after invasion (first to be reconquered= Asturias, last=Granada) Muslims in Spain (Moorish Control)
• in 711, Muslims from north of Africa invaded Iberian peninsula and conquered most of it
• what is now Spain was under Arab control until 1492
• many years of muslim control --> Arab influence seen everywhere ~ Many Spanish words have Arab roots (i.e words starting with 'al', ojalá), many cities in Spain have buildings with clear muslim influence (most famous: mosque of Córdoba), muslim foods ( rice and spices, nuts, fruits of N. Africa ) El cantar del mio Cid
• written anonymously ~
• style of singing poem, very popular literary form in medieval Spain
• takes place during reconquista
• main character, Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, is trying to recover his honor after being exiled by King Alfonso VI
• takes part in the battle of Valencia, regains his honor, daughters marry relatives of King, husbands rape + almost kill wives, Cid fights the bad husbands in court and defeats them, daughters marry heirs of house of Navarra and Aragón
• Cid known as man who unified Spain during reconquista El libro de buen amor
• written in 1320s by Juan Ruiz
• includes different genres: narrative, lyric, didactic
• commentary on love and its behaviors
• main character, Archpriest of Hita, presents topic in an almost biographical way, talks about sexual

frustrations

• debates about love and whether man should put aside thirst for sex and embrace divine love instead La Celestina
• Written by Fernando de Rojas in 1499
• many consider it to be the first Spanish novel
• written as dialogue between characters, 21 acts
• seduction of young virgin, Melibea, with the help of old woman, Celestina ~Calisto meets and falls in love with Melibea (she doesn't feel same), Calisto goes to Celestina for help, with help, Melibea and Calisto fall in love and no longer need Celestina's help. This causes lots of problems, most characters die by end of book War of Spanish Succession 1701 to 1714 war fought between a number of European states over Spanish throne after king Charles II died childless. In the end, Philip of Anjou of France won and became the next king of Spain known as Philip V. Mexican-American War Still smarting from the loss of Texas a decade before, Mexico went to war with the United States in 1846 after a series of skirmishes on the border. The Americans invaded Mexico on two fronts and captured Mexico City in May of 1848. As devastating as the war was for Mexico, the peace was worse. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and Wyoming to the United States in exchange for $15 million and forgiveness of about $3 million more in debts. The War of the Triple Alliance
• 1864 - 1870
• The most devastating war ever fought in South America , the War of the Triple Alliance pitted Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil against Paraguay. When Uruguay was attacked by Brazil and Argentina in late 1864, Paraguay came to its aid and attacked Brazil. Ironically, Uruguay, then under a different president, switched sides and fought against its former ally. By the time the war was over, hundreds of thousands had died and Paraguay was in ruins. It would take decades for the nation to recover.

Mexican Revolution

• 1911 - 20
• A revolution of impoverished peasants against an entrenched wealthy class , the Mexican Revolution shook the world and forever altered the trajectory of Mexican politics. It was a bloody war, which included horrific battles, massacres, and assassinations. The Mexican Revolution officially ended in 1920 when Alvaro Obregón became the last general standing after years of conflict, although the fighting continued for another decade. As a result of the revolution, land reform finally took place in Mexico, and the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party), the political party that rose from the rebellion, stayed in power until the 1990's. Cuban Revolution
• 1953 - 59
• When Fidel Castro, his brother Raúl and a ragged band of followers attacked the barracks at Moncada in 1953, they may not have known they were taking the first step to one of the most significant revolutions of all time. With the promise of economic equality for all, the rebellion grew until 1959, when Cuban President Fulgencio Batista fled the country and victorious rebels filled the streets of Havana. Castro established a communist regime, building close ties with the Soviet Union, and stubbornly defied every attempt the United States could think of to remove him from power. Ever since, Cuba has either been a festering sore of totalitarianism in an increasingly democratic world, or a beacon of hope for all anti-imperialists, depending on your point of view. Operation Condor
• 1975 - 83
• In the mid-1970s, the governments of the southern cone of South America - Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia and Uruguay - had several things in common. They were ruled by conservative regimes, either dictators or military juntas, and they had a growing problem with opposition forces and dissidents. They therefore established Operation Condor, a collaborative effort to round up and kill or otherwise silence their enemies. By the time it ended, thousands were dead or missing and the trust of South Americans in their leaders was forever shattered. Although new facts come out occasionally and some of the worst perpetrators have been brought to justice, there are still many questions about this sinister operation and those behind it. The War of the Pacific

(1879-1884)

In 1879, Chile and Bolivia went to war after spending decades bickering over a border dispute. Peru, which had a military alliance with Bolivia, was drawn into the war as well. After a series of major battles at sea and on land, the Chileans were victorious. By 1881 the Chilean army had captured Lima and by 1884 Bolivia signed a truce. As a result of the war, Chile gained the disputed coastal province once and for all, leaving Bolivia landlocked , and also gained the province of Arica from Peru. The Peruvian and Bolivian nations were devastated, needing years to recover. Juan Perón dominant authoritarian and populist leader in Argentina from the mid-1940s ; led political movement that embraced working class Violeta Barrios Torres de Chamarro First woman elected president in Latin America. President of Nicaragua in 1990s, known for peace reforms after years of dictatorial rule Cinco de Mayo Celebrates anniversary of Mexico defeating France (Napoleon) in the Battle of Puebla in 1862. Gustavo Adolfo Becquer Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (February 17, 1836, Seville - December 22, 1870, Madrid) was a Spanish Romanticist poet and writer (mostly short stories) , also a playwright, literary columnist, and talented in drawing. Today he is considered one of the most important figures in Spanish literature, and is considered by some as the most read writer after Cervantes. He was associated with the romanticism and post-romanticism movements and wrote while realism was enjoying success in Spain. He was moderately well known during his life, but it was after his death that most of his works were published. His best known works are the Rhymes and the Legends, usually published together as Rimas y leyendas His work approached the traditional poetry and themes in a modern way, and he is considered the founder of modern Spanish lyricism. Garcilaso de la Vega

Garcilaso de la Vega (c. 1501 - 14 October 1536) was a Spanish soldier and poet. Although not the first or the only one to do so, he was the most influential poet to introduce Italian Renaissance verse forms, poetic techniques, and themes to Spain. He was well known in poetic circles during his lifetime, and his poetry has continued to be popular without interruption until the present. His poetry was published posthumously Gabriela Mistral (7 April 1889 - 10 January 1957), known by her pseudonym Gabriela Mistral was a Chilean poet- diplomat, educator and humanist. In 1945 she became the first Latin American author to receive a Nobel Prize in Literature, "for her lyric poetry which, inspired by powerful emotions, has made her name a symbol of the idealistic aspirations of the entire Latin American world". Some central themes in her poems are nature , betrayal, love , a mother's love, sorrow and recovery, travel, and Latin American identity as formed from a mixture of Native American and European influences. Spanish-American War In 1898, a conflict between the United States and Spain, in which the U.S. supported the Cubans' fight for independence. It ended Spanish colonial rule in the Americas and resulted in U.S. acquisition of territories in the western Pacific and Latin America. Spanish Exploration and Conquest The overseas expansion under the Crown of Castile was initiated under the royal authority and first accomplished by the Spanish conquistadors. The Americas were incorporated into the Spanish Empire, with the exception of Brazil, Canada, and several other small countries in South America and The Caribbean. The crown created civil and religious structures to administer the region. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade (abundance of gold, silver, other precious metals) and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions. Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean and continuing control of vast territory for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands, half of South America, most of Central America and much of North America (including present day Mexico, Florida and the Southwestern and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States). The indigenous population plummeted by an estimated 80% in the first century and a half following Columbus's voyages, primarily through the spread of Afro-Eurasian diseases. Racial

mixing was a central process in the Spanish colonization of the Americas, and ultimately led to the Latin American identity, which combines Hispanic and native American ethnicities. Spain enjoyed a cultural golden age in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when silver and gold from American mines increasingly financed a long series of European and North African wars. In the early 19th century, the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the secession and subsequent balcanization of most Spanish colonies in the Americas, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, which were finally given up in 1898 , following the Spanish-American War, together with Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific. Spain's loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas Tupac Amaru II The Incan leader of a large Andean uprising (1780) against the Spanish in Peru during the Bourbon reforms. The rebellion continued after his death. He later became a mythical figure in the Peruvian struggle for independence and indigenous rights movement , as well as an inspiration to myriad causes in Spanish America and beyond. Magical Realism A genre of fiction in which elements of fantasy, myth, or the supernatural are included in a narrative that is otherwise objective and realistic. Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) (1852 - 1901)

• Spanish realist novelist , began as journalist (pen name Clarín)
• La Regenta is his masterpiece.
• His inflammatory articles, known as paliques ("chitchat") , as well as his advocacy of liberalism and anti-clericalism , made him a formidable and controversial critical voice Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca Spanish explorer, present-day Texas, survived shipwreck, pretended to be healer, advocated for better treatment of indigenous people José de Espronceda

(1808 - 1842) was a Romantic Spanish poet , one of the most representative authors of the 19th century Luis de Góngora (1561 - 1627) was a Spanish Baroque lyric poet. Góngora and his lifelong rival, Francisco de Quevedo , are widely considered the most prominent Spanish poets of all time. His style is characterized by what was called culteranismo/Gongorismo (characterized by a very ornamental, ostentatious vocabulary and a message that is complicated by a sea of metaphors and complex syntactical order) Francisco de Quevedo (1580 - 1645) was a Spanish nobleman, politician and writer of the Baroque era. Along with his lifelong rival, Luis de Góngora , Quevedo was one of the most prominent Spanish poets of the age. His style is characterized by what was called conceptismo (characterized by a rapid rhythm, directness, simple vocabulary, witty metaphors, and wordplay. In this style, multiple meanings are conveyed in a very concise manner, and conceptual intricacies are emphasized over elaborate vocabulary.) Nicolás Guillén (1902 - 1989), Cuban poet of social protest and a leader of the Afro-Cuban movement in the late 1920s and '30s. His commitment to social justice and membership in the Communist Party made him the national poet of revolutionary Cuba. Mariano José de Larra (1809 — 1837), Spanish journalist and satirist who attacked contemporary society for its social habits, literary tastes, and political ineptitude. Antonio Machado (1875 - 1939), was a Spanish poet and one of the leading figures of the Spanish literary movement known as the Generation of '98. His work, initially modernist, evolved towards an intimate form of symbolism with romantic traits. Don Juan Manuel

(1282—1348), nobleman, called the most important prose writer of 14th-century Spain. grandson of Ferdinand III and the nephew of Alfonso X. He fought against the Moors when only 12 years old, and the rest of his life was spent deeply involved in the political intrigues of his time. Carmen Martín Gaite Spanish writer (1925—2000), was a member of the group of Social Realist novelists that arose in Spain in the 1950s , but she departed from her more conventional contemporaries as she infused many of her works with greater psychological depth and with elements drawn from folk legends, fables, and fairy tales Tirso de Molina (1579 - 1648) was a Spanish Baroque dramatist, poet and Roman Catholic monk. He is primarily known for writing The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest, the play from which the popular character of Don Juan originates. His work is also of particular significance due to the abundance of female protagonists, as well as the exploration of sexual issues Alfonsina Storni (1892-1938) Argentine modernist poet José Maria de Heredia (1842—1905), Cuban-born French poet, brilliant master of the sonnet The Beginnings of Spanish Literature (1099 - 1400) This was the pre-Renaissance of Spanish literature. Spain was greatly influenced by Italy , hence religious undertones in many works. Most works were passed down through oral story- telling. Lazarillo de Tormes was written during this time, which set off a wave of popularity for the picaresque novel. Mesteres de Clerecía y Juglaría (1300 - 1400) The clerecía consists of the oral poems told by trained poets and clerics. These poems were carefully crafted to represent a set rhyme scheme and rhythm. Popular themes included saints

and Christianity. The juglaría is the poems written by minstrels; they do not follow a set form, use assonance instead of rhyme, and were recited to uneducated audiences. Renaissance (1300 - 1600) Much conflict between Spain and Italy during this time spurred new ideas in literature (like humanism and a recovery of historical latin/greek texts ) There were two schools of poetic thought: Salmantine was concise and realistic , and Sevillan was complex and grandiloquent. Much of the literature of the time had to do with Christianity (ordered by the Crown to reaffirm the faith of the country) and romantic thought. The picaresque/epic novel was popular. Carpe Diem became an important theme. Chronicles the most important 16th-century writing in the Americas is the chronicles of the discovery and conquest of the New World Baroque (1600 - 1700) Baroque writing is characterized by pessimism, disillusionment, and worry about passing time. "Don Quixote" is the most important work of the period. Enlightenment (1700 - 1800) The Enlightenment was characterized by a few key thoughts: Reason, rationalism, science Anti-Baroquism fought the ideas of Baroque writing; it focused more on simplicity and satire. Neo-Classicism was experienced by Spain alongside Italy and France. It was influenced by Greek classics. Rise of Latin American Novel Romanticism (1800 - 1850) Romanticism focused on rebellion against authority but also a return to the Catholic religion.

Expression of emotion, national themes of independence, local landscapes The thought of costumbrismo prominently focused on the lives of common people. Realism (1850-1900) Realism focused on everyday experiences and familiar conflicts such as marital woes. It was often in defense of a literary thesis of the author. Characters often were psychological studies. Generation of '98 (1898 - 1938) This was a group of young Spanish writers and intellectuals active after the Spanish-American War and during the Spanish Civil War. They analyzed the country's problems in an effort to promote a sense of national pride. They were committed to cultural and aesthetic renewal , and associated with modernism. They brought back old and lost Spanish words , and they showed support for old Spanish regionalism. Their work reinvigorated Spanish literature Modernism (1900 - 1970) Modernism rejected the ideals of realism. Art was now created for art's sake , and everything was heavily embellished and ornate. Characters were grandiose. Symbolism was frequently used. focus on aesthetic beauty Generation of '27 (1923 - 1927) This generation of avant-garde poets rose over a 4 year period and had their first meeting in 1927. They used a wide variety of styles , but the majority tried to incorporate both traditional Spanish lore and sophisticated European thought into their works. Latin American Boom (1960 - 1967) An important literary movement when the work of a group of relatively young Latin American novelists became widely circulated in Europe and throughout the world. The Boom is most closely associated with Cortázar, Fuentes, Llosa, and García Márquez. Influenced by European and North American Modernism , but also by the Latin American Vanguardia movement, these

writers challenged the established conventions of Latin American literature (Mixing of languages, crossing of styles, and pushing of traditional Latin American societal norms was frequent). Their work is experimental and, owing to the political climate of the Latin America of the 1960s, also very political. Romance de la perdida de Alhama 1482 Author: anonymous The king of a Spanish town bears bad news that the town has fallen to the Moors. He condemns everyone for letting the tragedy happen, but a wise Arabic man tells the truth that the King did nothing to help the town either. El Burlador de Sevilla 1630 Author: Tirso de Molina Prose (play) This story outlines the crazy life of a certain womanizer Don Juan. Act I shows Juan pretending to be the King of Spain at night. He tricks the Queen into thinking this and narrowly escapes the guards. His uncle, Pedro, is angry but protects him. We move to Tisbea, who is liberated from love. Tisbea nurtures Juan after he nearly drowns, and because of his bravery, she falls in love with him. The King promises Juan's hand in marriage to a man's daughter. Juan is also warned for the 1st time that he will pay for his sins of seduction. Act II- a lot of marital checks and balances take action, and Juan marries Isabela, the woman he apprehended in Act I. Act III- Isabela, Aminta, and Tisbea all meet (the past is coming back to haunt Juan). Juan invites a statue to his home as a joke, but he is haunted and the statue shows up. The ghost tortures and kills Juan. The scene moves to everyone who has been wronged by him complaining to the king. News of his death arrives, and the 3 women are considered widows. Hombres Necios 1680 Author: Sor Juana Sor Juana writes this emotional poem to accuse men of falsely accusing women for evils within the

world. She uses a sharp and accusatory tone to show that women are not the only issue. Her main message is that men blame women for issues they are pigeonholed into by men themselves El Hijo 1903 Author: Horacio Quiroga Prose The father, a widower, allows his son to go alone into the woods to hunt. The father is at unrest because the son is his whole life. At 10, he hears a shot, but hopes that it is just his son catching an animal. At 12:30, he sees the son reappear. But the son has died from a hunter's trap; it is an illusion of the father's to deal with the grief. Peso Ancestral 1919 Author: Alfonsina Storni poem, 3 quatrains The woman is told that her ancestors, including her father and grandfather, did not cry or complain; they were made of steel. As she is told this, the woman cries a venomous tear, for she cannot bear the burden of her pained ancestors. San Manuel Bueno, mártir 1930 Author: Miguel de Unamuno Prose Angela tells the story. She is a devout Catholic from a small Spanish town that boasts a very religious man, Manuel. Lazaro, Angela's brother, is less of a believer. They both leave the town, but are drawn back because of Manuel. Lazaro feigns conversion to Christianity and becomes a disciple of Manuel. Manuel admits that he does not believe in life after death, but that the faith is a comfort to people's problems in life. Manuel becomes ill, urges the townspeople to remain faithful , and dies. Lazaro dies shortly after. Even Angela is left with her faith shaken. The story deals with themes of faith, reasoning, and judgement La Casa de Bernarda Alba