CSET SPANISH SUBTEST IV 100% VERIFIED ANSWERS 2024/2025 CORRECT, Exams of Spanish Language

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CSET SPANISH SUBTEST IV

100% VERIFIED ANSWERS

2024/2025 CORRECT

14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution; amendment ratified in 1868 after the Civil War, declares in part: "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Many of the cases discussed in this section are based on the ** due process and the equal protection clauses ** of the # Amendment. Plessy v. Ferguson a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court issued in 1896. It upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation laws for public facilities as long as the segregated facilities were equal in quality - a doctrine that came to be known as "separate but equal. Although the decision was related to the segregation of African American students, in many parts of the country Native American, Asian, and Hispanic students were also routinely segregated. " Brown v. Board of Education REVERSAL of Plessy v. Ferguson; 58 years later in 1954; Like Plessy, focused on the segregation of African American students. But by ruling that states are responsible for providing "equal educational opportunities" for all students made bilingual education for ELLs more feasible. Independent School District v. Salvatierra, Alvarez v. Lemon Grove, and Méndez v. Westminster School District Addresses Segregation A few lesser known lower level cases concerning the segregation of Hispanic student predate Brown. Independent School District v. Salvatierra (1930)

Mexican American parents in the small border town of Rio, Texas, brought suit against the school district over segregation. The court sided with the school district that argued the segregation was necessary to teach the students English. This argument did not hold, however, for two similar cases in California: Alvarez v. Lemon Grove (1931) and Méndez v. Westminster School District (1947). The judge in Alvarez noted that segregation was not beneficial for the students' English language development and the success of the Méndezcase helped set the stage for Brown. Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson and Johnson v. San Francisco Unified School District Addresses Segregation In some instances, desegregation efforts made it more difficult. In San Francisco, for example, Chinese Americans fought a desegregation order that would force students out of neighborhood schools that provided bilingual English Chinese programs for newcomer Chinese ELL students. The Chinese community took the case to court in 1971 and it was appealed to the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals in Johnson v. San Francisco Unified School District. In 1974, the court ruled against the Chinese community, declaring simply Brown applies to races. Meyers v. Nebraska The Right of Communities to Teach Their Native Languages to Their Children In the early 1900s, German communities typically ran their own private schools where students received instruction in both German and English. Then, in 1919, Nebraska passed the Siman Act, The state court ruled that the act could not prevent schools from providing German language instruction outside of the hours of regular school study. In response, the parochial schools taught German during an extended recess period. Language restrictionist policymakers sought to close the loopholes in the law and fined Robert Meyers $25 fine for teaching Bible stories to 10 yr old children in German. The case, Meyers v. Nebraska(1923), went to Supreme Court, which consolidated this case with similar cases from Ohio and Idaho. Supreme Court struck down the states' restrictive legislation, ruling that whereas state governments can legislate the language used for instruction in schools, states may not pass laws that attempt to prevent communities from offering private language classes outside of the regular school system. Made it clear that the 14th Amendment provides protection for language minorities, does not endorse it though. Siman Act 1919 Nebraska made it illegal for any school, public or private, to provide any foreign language instruction to students below the 8th grade. Associated with Meyers vs Nebraska.

Farrington v. Tokushige The Right of Communities to Teach Their Native Languages to Their Children Hawaii in 1927, the court offered further protections of after-school community language programs after attempts by education authorities to put restrictions on Japanese and Chinese heritage language programs. Case essentially about parents' rights rather than language rights; still signs of negative attitudes toward the "foreign population." Indeed, Hawaii tried yet again to limit private foreign language instruction. When the Chinese communities after World War II sought to restart their private language schools, the state passed the "Act Regulating the Teaching of Foreign Languages to Children." Part of the state's rationale was the need to "protect children from the harm of learning a foreign language." The Supreme Court ruled that prohibiting schools to teach in a language other than English violates constitutional rights protected under the Fifth Amendment Stainback v. Mo Hock Ke Kok Po The Right of Communities to Teach Their Native Languages to Their Children (1947), the state court struck down the statute, rejecting the state's claim and arguing that, at least for "the brightest" students, study of a foreign language can be beneficial. The case was decided on the basis of Farrington and, once again, had more to do with parents' rights in directing the education of their children than with language rights. Despite agreement in the courts about the need for states to Americanize minorities and their right to control the language used for instruction in public schools, minority communities have a clear right to offer private language classes in which their children can learn and maintain their home languages. Thus, the common practice of language-minority communities today in offering heritage language programs after school and on weekends is protected by the U.S. Constitution. Xenophobia toward German and Japanese Americans during World War I and World War II succeeded where attempts at language restrictive legislation failed. When Germany and later Japan became war enemies of the United States, the number of U.S. schools that provided instruction in these languages dropped dramatically, largely because of fears by members of these communities that such instruction would lead others to question their loyalty to the United States Lau v. Nichols Equal Educational Opportunities for ELLs 1974 Supreme Court case that resulted in perhaps the most important court decision regarding the education of language minority students; brought forward by

Chinese American students in the San Francisco Unified School District who were placed in mainstream classrooms despite their lack of proficiency in English, and left to "sink or swim." The district had argued that it had done nothing wrong, and that the Chinese American students received treatment equal to that of other students. the responsibility to over- the responsibility to overcome language barriers that impede full integration of students falls on the school boards and not on the parents or children; otherwise, there is no real access for these students to a meaningful education Justice William Douglass Lou vs Nichols 1974, in writing the court's opinion, strongly disagreed, arguing: Under these state imposed standards there is no equality of treatment merely by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and curriculum; for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education.... We know that those who do not understand English are certain to find their classroom experiences wholly incomprehensible and in no way meaningful. Influence of Lau on federal Policy 1974, After the court's decision, the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Civil Rights created the Lau Remedies. Whereas Title VII Bilingual Education Act regulations applied only to funded programs, the Lau Remedies applied to all school districts and functioned as de facto compliance standards. The Office of Civil Rights used the Lau decision to go after districts that, like San Francisco, were essentially ignoring the needs of its LEP students. Its impact was codified into federal law though the Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 (EEOA) Lau Remedies essentially require districts to implement bilingual education programs for LEP students; elementary schools were generally required to provide LEP students special English-as-a-second-language instruction as well as academic subject-matter instruction through the students' strongest language until the student achieved proficiency in English sufficient to learn effectively in a monolingual English classroom. James Lyons (1995) former president of the National Association for Bilingual Education, explains further: The Lau Remedies specified proper approaches, methods and procedures for (1) identifying and evaluating

national-origin-minority students' English-language skills; (2) determining appropriate instructional treatments; (3) deciding when LEP students were ready for mainstream classes; and (4) determining the professional standards to be met by teachers of language-minority children. Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 (EEOA) Section 1703(f) declares: "No state shall deny educational opportunities to an individual on account of his or her race, color, sex, or national origin by ... (f) the failure of an educational agency to take appropriate action to overcome language barriers that impede equal participation by its students in its instructional programs." // At the time of its passage, this section was viewed as a declaration of the legal right for students to receive a bilingual education, under the assumption that this is what Lau essentially mandated Although other legal actions have since made it clear that the Supreme Court never did mandate bilingual education, this act remains in effect and several subsequent lawsuits have been based on this important legislation. United States v. Texas Rulings that Support Bilingual Education (1971, 1981) includes mandates that affect all Texas schools. The court ordered the district to create a plan and implement language programs that would help Mexican American students learn English and adjust to American culture and also help Anglo students learn Spanish. The court relied heavily on the testimony of José Cardenas and his theory of incompatibilities, which blames the educational failure of students on the inadequacies of school programs rather than on students themselves. Serna v. Portales Rulings that Support Bilingual Education (1974) was the first case to raise the issue of bilingual education outside of the context of desegregation. The case dealt with a White majority school in New Mexico that failed to meet the unique needs of "Spanish surnamed students." It was argued under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The court found the school's program for these students to be inadequate. The judge declared, "It is incumbent on the school district to reassess and enlarge its program directed to the specialized needs of the Spanish surnamed students" and to create bilingual programs at other schools where they are needed. This case was first decided in 1972. Later it was appealed to the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals and decided in 1974 just six months after Lau. Like Lau, it makes clear that schools cannot ignore the unique language and educational needs of ELL students.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis of "race, color, or national origin" in any program that receives federal funding. Aspira v. New York Rulings that Support Bilingual Education Legal action taken by Puerto Rican parents and children in New York in (1975) resulted in the A _____ Consent Decree, which mandates transitional bilingual programs for Spanish surnamed students found to be more proficient in Spanish than English. The A______ Consent Decree is still in effect and has been a model for school districts across the country, though it is frequently under attack by opponents of bilingual education. Rios v. Reed Rulings that Support Bilingual Education Bilingual education in New York received a further boost a few years later in (1978). The case was argued under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act and the EEOA. Puerto Rican parents brought suit claiming that many so called bilingual education programs were not bilingual but based mainly on ESL. The federal court found the district's bilingual programs to be woefully inadequate, pointing to the lack of trained bilingual teachers and the absence of a clearly defined curriculum, clear entrance and exit criteria, and firm guidelines about how much instruction should be in the native language of the students. Although the court issued no specific remedies, the federal Office of Civil Rights came in to ensure that the district made improvements. This case is significant because it made a strong case for offering bilingual education and for doing it right. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez Rulings That Erode Support for Bilingual Education Another Texas case, (1973), although not directly related to bilingual education, had some serious implications for it. It dealt with inequalities in school funding, with the plaintiff charging that predominantly minority schools received less funding than schools that served predominantly White students. The case was argued under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, but the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that there is no fundamental right to an education guaranteed by the Constitution. Indeed, if there is no constitutional right to an education under the 14th Amendment, as Del Valle (2003) points out, "there is clearly no constitutional right to a bilingual education." Flores v. Arizona and Williams v. California

Rulings That Erode Support for Bilingual Education Because of the San Antonio Indep. School Dist. vs Rodriguez case, all subsequent cases over inadequacies in school funding have had to be argued under state constitutions. Some of these cases, such as this one (2000) and this other one (settled in 2004), include or specifically address inadequacies related to the education of ELL students. But despite court orders in F____ to increase funding for ELL students, state legislators and educational leaders have used a wide variety of stall tactics and legal maneuvering to avoid fully complying with the court's order. In 2009 the AZ legislature and the state superintendent of public instruction appealed the case to the U.S. Supreme Court. The high court essentially agreed with the state leaders that the situation in AZ for ELLs had changed substantially since the original lower court ruling, and thus the lower courts must take these changes into consideration. Although the ruling was disappointing to the plaintiffs, it nonetheless keeps the legal battle alive, with the attorney and advocates in the state gathering new evidence of the harm caused by recent state policies and the underfunding of ELLs' education. This case demonstrates that even when courts issue decisions with specific mandates, changes do not happen immediately and are often resisted by political figures who disagree with the decision. Otero v. Mesa County Valley School District Rulings That Erode Support for Bilingual Education In the 1980s, in the wake of Lau, support for bilingual education was eroded by the courts. For example, this case in CO, (1980), failed in the plaintiffs' attempt to obtain a court order for bilingual education. The plaintiffs wanted a plan for its Mexican American students like the one based on the testimony of Cardenas that was recommended by the court in United States v. Texas (1971) even though they made up a small number of students in the district, and less than 3% could even speak or understand Spanish. As in United States v. Texas, the court's decision made it clear that despite Lau, there is no constitutional right to bilingual or bicultural education. Keyes v. School District No. 1 Rulings That Erode Support for Bilingual Education In another CO case, (1983), the court also rejected a Cardenas like plan on the basis that Lau did not mandate bilingual education and that according to the decision in Rodriguez there is no constitutional right to education. The bilingual education component was just one part of this complicated desegregation case. Del Valle suggests that the court seemed content that the district was simply offering a "number of programs" for ELLs, without examining the adequacy of these programs. This issue of program adequacy, however, was addressed in subsequent lawsuits.

Castañeda v. Pickard Rulings That Erode Support for Bilingual Education The right to bilingual education suffered a further blow in 1981 in this case. The case originated in Texas, where plaintiffs charged that the Raymondville Independent School District was failing to address the needs of ELL students as mandated by the EEOA. The federal court ignored the old assumption that Lau and the EEOA mandated bilingual education. Nevertheless, it did find that Raymondville fell far short of meeting the requirements of the EEOA. A major outcome of this case is a three-pronged test to determine whether schools are taking "appropriate action" to address the needs of ELLs as required by the EEOA. The Castañeda standard mandates that programs for language-minority students must be (1) based on a sound educational theory, (2) implemented effectively with sufficient resources and personnel, and (3) evaluated to determine whether they are effective in helping students overcome language barriers (Del Valle, 2003). Since the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Lau, two other lawsuits have been decided in the high court that, while not related to bilingual education, nonetheless undermine the original legal argument of Lau. [These two cases are Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) and Alexander v. Sandoval (2001).] HAS become the law of the land in determining the adequacy of programs for ELLs. SHORTCOMINGS: prongs 1 and 2, nearly any program can be justified by an educational theory and that some approaches require very little in the way of staff or funding, AND prong 3, a certain amount of time must pass before a determination can be made about the adequacy of the programs. Thus, many students may be harmed before inadequate programs are identified and rectified. Gomez v. Illinois State Board of Education Rulings That Erode Support for Bilingual Education a case 6 years after Castañeda (1987) — demonstrated the value of the Castañeda test in legal efforts to rectify inadequate programs. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the 7th Circuit relied heavily on Castañeda in its decision and gave state boards of education the power to enforce compliance with the EEOA. The court declared, in a ruling much like Lau, that school districts have a responsibility to serve ELL students and cannot allow children to just sit in classrooms where they cannot understand instruction. However, as in Lau, the court did not mandate any specific program models. Recent Lawsuits

Rulings That Erode Support for Bilingual Education Between 1995 and 2001, opponents of bilingual education in a few communities filed lawsuits against their school districts (e.g., Bushwick Parents Organization v. Mills [1995] in New York) whereby opponents of bilingual education attempted to turn the original purpose of bilingual education on its head by charging that a program that was developed to ensure that ELL students have the same educational opportunities as all other students was actually preventing equal educational opportunities for ELL students. These cases also illustrate that attacks on bilingual education are rarely grass roots efforts by Latino parents but rather are orchestrated by powerful outsiders who mislead parents into joining their cause and in the process often create divisions within Latino communities. Opponents of bilingual education although their legal attacks on bilingual education have somewhat failed, they have scored major victories in the court of public opinion through the English for the Children voter initiatives (Prop 203 AZ). Proposition 203 Supported by Ron Unz. English for the Children ballot initiative that was passed by 63% of Arizona voters on November 7, 2000. It limited the type of instruction available to English language learner (ELL) students. Before Proposition #, schools were free in terms of ELL instruction to use bilingual or immersion methods. According to a cover letter from the Arizona Department of Education Superintendent of Public Instruction Lisa Graham Keegan to the Arizona Legislature, it was impossible to make a correct analysis regarding how many students were learning through English as a second language programs, as opposed to bilingual education. Two cases in Arizona were based on challenges to Prop #: Sotomayor and Gabaldon v. Burns (2000) and Morales v. Tucson Unified School District (2001). Although some of these resulted in small victories, none has succeeded in overturning the voter initiatives. Several districts obtained waivers for their ELL students and continued their bilingual education programs. For the most part, neither the bilingual nor the immersion programs were in compliance with the law. Propostion 227 1998, Prop # did not outlaw all bilingual education programs. It did, however require that parents sign a waiver if they wanted to keep their children in a bilingual classroom. Without a waiver, ELLs were automatically placed in English-only classes. Critics of bilingual instruction say it delays kids' ability to read, write and speak proper English because they spend too much time learning in their

native language. That view was widespread in 1998, the year that 61 percent of voters passed Proposition #, ending what was called "transitional bilingual education." Seal of Biliteracy began in California in response to Proposition #. Five cases in California were based on challenges to Proposition #: Quiroz v. State Board of Education (1997); Valerie G. v. Wilson (1998); McLaughlin v. State Board of Education (1999); Doe v. Los Angeles Unified School District (1999); California Teachers Association v. Davis (1999). Proposition 58 2016, One influential supporter of Prop # is Shelly Spiegel-Coleman. She's head of Californians Together, a Long Beach nonprofit that's behind the so-called "biliteracy movement" in California. She says knowing at least two languages now is as important as being proficient in math, science and reading. // Advocates of Prop # point to a 2014 Stanford University study of 18,000 ELLs in San Francisco. It found that, by fifth grade, ELLs who had gotten waivers to remain in small bilingual programs were equally proficient in English and did just as well on state tests when compared with ELLs in English-only programs. Ron Unz Leading the charge against the bilingual measure Prop 58, the Silicon Valley millionaire who orchestrated the original ban in 1998. His campaign was inspired by a protest by immigrant parents in Los Angeles in 1996. insists that bilingual instruction is ineffective and cheats ELLs of a quality education. He argues that ELLs need no more than a year of intensive English instruction before moving on to English-only classrooms, and that while challenges remain, those students today are better off. Familias del Pueblo launched a boycott at the Ninth Street School in LA's garment district. Latino parents complained that, as much as they wanted their kids to continue speaking Spanish, only 1 percent of the students at the school knew enough English to transition out of the bilingual program. Immigration Peak 1830s to 1850s large numbers of Irish, Russian Jews, Germans, Swedes, Norwegians, Sicilians, and Neapolitans immigrated. Immigration Peak 1880 to 1900

Chinese, 1882, tougher immigration laws in U.S. Melting Pot metaphor for life in North America implied that the large numbers of recent immigrants should conform to the ways, and therefore, the language, of mainstream North America. Spanish American War BilED 1898, the United States government imposed English as the mainstream school language in the new colonies, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, in spite of the fact that the Puerto Ricans were entirely Spanish speaking (Resnick, 1993). In 1916, the requirement was relaxed somewhat to allow in Puerto Rico Spanish mainstream instruction in first through fourth grade, Spanish and English in fifth grade, but only English thereafter. This lasted until 1940. Nationality Act 1906 first legislation requiring immigrants to speak English to become naturalized citizens (Leibowitz, 1982). 1900, the first large-scale United States adult English instruction was undertaken (Crawford, 1989). Intolerance for Non ENG Mainstream Instruction German mainstream instruction in schools began in the late 1880s and peaked around 1919, with the rise of anti-German feelings and the advent of the American Protective Association. By 1923 34 states had legislation prohibiting public instruction in languages other than English. English as a Second Language (ESL) developed in 1930s Japanese Language EDU schools closed during WWII, aimed at heritage speakers; Japanese immigration to Hawaii had begun in 1868, and to the mainland in 1869; During the 1990s, The College Board, a United States standardized testing agency, began to offer an SAT Subject Test in _____ and conducted the first sitting of the _____ Advanced Placement exam in May 2007; these examinations enable high school students to obtain college credit for their prior study of the ____ language. However, unlike Chinese, which continued to grow in the early 2000s, the popularity of ____ declined sharply.

Title VI of Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting discrimination on the grounds of race, color, or national origin in programs or activities receiving federal monies (National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, 1991). Office of Civil Rights (OCR) made to oversee compliance with Title VI. Early: proactive on language minority issues, viewed by bilingual advocates as supportive of their cause. E.g.: 1970, OCR sent a memo to school districts stating that OCR policy required effective instruction for language-minority students. E.g.: 1975, OCR published standards for school systems to ensure their compliance with the now famous Lau v. Nichols decision. BUT 1981, OCR withdrew the Lau Remedies and replaced them with a series of non prescriptive measures. THEN: Inactive. NOW: OCR reviews schools on a case by case basis. TESOL 1996, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, expanding concern about teaching English to language-minority students through the mid-1900s led to the formation, focus on English learning National Association for Bilingual Education formed in 1975, 4500 members La Raza Unida party 1970, lobbied for bilingual education, "militant" Mexican-American group in Crystal City, Texas.; 1970, boycotted schools to protest unequal treatment of Spanish-speaking students; won a majority of school board seats and immediately thereafter instituted a bilingual education program in their schools. TEXAS Bilingual Education Act 1968 first major federal effort to address educational problems, also known as Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act 1965 enacted after substantial political organization efforts by the Hispanic community to support programs for language minority children in schools having high language minority concentrations, with families who had incomes below $3,000 a year; next three reauthorizations of Title VII weakened support for native-language instruction and boosting monies for English only programs.

Reauthorization of BEd Act 1974 drop the poverty criterion and to require schools receiving grants to include instruction in native language and culture as necessary for effective education Reauthorization of BEd Act 1978 amended language stated that native language would be used strictly to transition into English. Notably, the Act was also expanded to cover all language minority children, including those who needed help reading and writing English, even if speaking/listening abilities were adequate Reauthorization of BEd Act 1984 committed funds to Special Alternative Instructional Programs (SAIPS) that used no native language instruction. Reauthorization of BEd Act 1988 went even farther to undercut bilingualism. A prior 4% cap on English-only programs was removed, and all restrictions on support for alternative methodologies (alternatives to bilingual programs) were lifted; $10 million was added to the budget, 70% to 75% of the new money, along with monies diverted from Title VII's teacher-training account, BUT reserved for English only methods; AND students could be enrolled in bilingual education programs for NO LONGER than three years. Chacon Moscone Bilingual Bicultural ED ACT 1976, exp 1987, California assemblyman Peter Chacón and state senator George R. Moscone introduced Assembly Bill 1329; AB-1329 required that all limited- and non-English-speaking children enrolled in California's public schools receive instruction in a language they understand and that school districts provide them access to a standard curriculum. Legal basis for bilingual services to all identified limited English-speaking students in CALIFORNIA public schools; requires that 1) all CA districts participate in the annual State language census, 2) that each identified limited English speaker be annually assessed in language and other skills, 3) that individual students be provided with individual bilingual learning programs, and 4) that groups of students receive bilingual instruction. ((Other provisions address funding, effective instruction, accounting, teacher and aide requirements, program requirements, testing and reporting, program administration, and parents' rights.)) Transitional Bilingual Education Act 1972

Massachusetts legislature passed the ACT, the first state-approved bilingual legislation in the nation, mandating bilingual education programs in all school districts with 20 or more children from the same non-English-language background. It would be the first of only nine states to require bilingual instruction in all school districts. California Proposition 63 1986, English Is the Official Language of California Amendment, was on the November 4, 1986 ballot in California as an initiated constitutional amendment, where it was approved by 73% of voters. Gutiérrez v. Municipal Court, was filed against Proposition # after it was enacted. As a result of the lawsuit, the Ninth Circuit ruled in 1988 that Proposition # was "largely symbolic."[1] A year later, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed the Ninth Circuit's ruling. Gutierrez V. Municipal 1988 Ninth Circuit addressed the issue of whether an English-only rule instituted by the Municipal Court violated Title VII by discriminating against its Hispanic employees on the basis of national origin. In that case, the Municipal Court promulgated an English only rule forbidding "employees to speak any language other than English except when acting as translators." Gutierrez, a bilingual translator who worked for the court, sued for injunctive relief. The court adopted the EEOC's (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) business necessity test as "the proper standard for determining the validity of limited English only rules. Burden of Proof of rules on Businesses to justify "business necessity" for ENG only rules. Equal Education Opportunities Act (EEOA) 1974 required schools to work to overcome language barriers that interfered with language minority students' learning; passed as a house bill amending the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 National Defense Education Act of 1958 authorized funds to thousands of students for foreign language training with the launching of Sputnik Voting Rights Act 1975 amended to require bilingual ballots in jurisdictions where language minorities exceeded 5% of the population and where illiteracy rates exceeded national norms

William J. Bennett Reagan presidency, Secretary of Education, vocal antagonist of bilingual education; 1985, he appointed antagonists of bilingual education to the National Advisory and Coordinating Council on Bilingual Education; Congressional Hispanic Caucus 1988, brought special monies to address language learning issues, but solely for support of learning English; sponsored the English Proficiency Act which was enacted as part of an omnibus education measure and authorized $25 million a year for adult ESL programs. Federation for American Immigration Reform 1979, non-profit organization in the United States that advocates for lower immigration; publishes position papers, organizes events, and runs campaigns in order to influence US immigration policies; Washington, D.C. based; called to testify before Congress in 1983 when President Reagan worked to cut the federal budget for bilingual education and to relax regulations on schools; 1986 through 1988 the organization supported efforts in 40 states to make English the official state language. English Plus organization 1985, founded by The League of United Latin American Citizens and the Spanish American League Against Discrimination; 1987 the EP Information Clearinghouse (EPIC) was established. EP continues to be the main national effort to combat the English Only movement. Elementary and Secondary Education Act 1965 passed by the 89th United States Congress and signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on April 11, 1965. Part of Johnson's "War on Poverty." Title 1 Schools Funding to close achievement gaps. Led to 1968 Bilingual ED ACT, 1974 Equal ED Opp. ACT, and 2001 NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND (standards based education reform). Dual language instruction broadly defined, are educational programs in which students learn academic content in the partner language - such as Spanish, Mandarin, or Arabic - and in English; students are taught literacy and content in two languages; Utah, Delaware, NY, CA. Considered to promote "additive bilingualism",

meaning that students' primary language is developed and maintained as a second language is added. This type of program may use a Self Contained or Side by Side model. Self Contained programs have one teacher for one group of students in one classroom. The teacher transitions from one language to the other along with her or his students. Side by Side programs have two or more classrooms for each grade, where one teacher teaches in the partner, or target, language and the other teacher teaches in the dominant language (English in the United States). The grade is divided into two groups of students and the groups trade classrooms and teachers according to an explicit schedule, whether daily or weekly. Finally, at some schools, two or more teachers may team teach in the same classroom, with each teacher using one language and a combination of whole group, small group, and independent activities facilitated by the teachers. One way immersion dual language programs made up students predominantly from one language group, either the partner language or English. Two way immersion dual language programs made up of ELLs fluent in the partner language and English-speaking peers; referred to as the most effective bilingual program contributing to long-term academic success. DURATION is key: in order to produce academic achievement, students ideally must be enrolled in this type of program for four to seven years. Transitional bilingual education the aim is to transition students out of their native language and, in the United States, into English as quickly as possibly, usually in three years. This is sometimes referred to as subtractive bilingualism since the first language is typically lost as English is acquired; introduced in kindergarten and can continue up to grade six or seven. Research has shown that many of the skills learned in the native language can easily be transferred to the second language later. This research reflects greater academic progress later; Early exit and Late exit options. Maintenance bilingual education

enroll primarily students who are native speakers of the partner language; Goal: To preserve and enhance students' skills in the mother tongue while they acquire a second language; also referred to as developmental bilingual education; uses English learners' home language and English for literacy and academic instruction throughout the elementary grade levels; a single class or program might include hispanic students of varying proficiencies of the English language. Heritage language education mainly enroll students who are dominant in English but whose parents, grandparents, or other ancestors spoke the partner language; learners or speakers may be defined as individuals who were exposed to the language in early childhood, but who later lost proficiency in the language in favor of adopting the majority language of the community; associated with Delayed Acquisition Theory and Incomplete Acquisition Theory; ALSO: idea is to acquire language from a community that SPEAKS that language in ethnolinguistic group. Attrition loss of, or failure to make full use of, "grammatical knowledge previously acquired" Fossilization occurs when a speaker lets go of non-core grammatical concepts but retains the basic core structure of the language. Incomplete Acquisition Theory recognizes that complete acquisition of L1 takes place throughout childhood, stretching into the school-age period. Therefore, heritage language learners, who typically switch to the dominant culture's language when they enter school and, consequently, experience a decline in input in the heritage language, do not completely acquire their first language. GRAMMAR concepts based on Universal Grammar theory PRESENT but not content. Attrition and fossilization are considered to be part of it because they render a language incomplete. Delayed acquisition may contribute to the difference in language competence between heritage speakers and monolingual speakers of the same language. Late or delayed acquisition of a language can have "consequences for linguistic, neurological, and cognitive mechanisms" that work to make language

acquisition "fast, effortless, and... successful". This theory must be considered in conjunction with theories on input variation. Dialect Variation theories surrounding this suggests that errors or deviations from the standard dialect made by a heritage language learner may reflect the acquisition of a non-standard variety or informal register of the heritage language, which include variations on certain properties or the lack of certain properties found in the standard dialect. Heritage language learners are often only exposed to one dialect or colloquial variety of the heritage language, unlike their monolingual peers who interact with a standard monolingual dialect found in formal instruction. Furthermore, certain grammatical properties are only present in the standard dialect or are used infrequently in the colloquial dialect. Quantity and Input Heritage language learners may also have a smaller THIS than their monolingual peers because the heritage language is only found in a restricted number of contexts and with fewer interlocutors. Citing statistics found in studies on hearing children with deaf parents, Flores and Barbosa (2014) posit that bilingual heritage language learners need a minimum of 5 to 10 hours of interaction per week with the language to develop native-like proficiency. Cross LX Influence refers to the different ways in which one language can affect another within an individual speaker. It typically involves two languages that can affect one another in a bilingual speaker; may contribute to heritage speakers' competence divergence. Heritage language learners show a tendency to overuse grammatical properties that are found in both the heritage language and the dominant language. Furthermore, heritage language learners may prefer grammatical structures from the dominant language and transfer them into the heritage language. Crosslinguistic Hypothesis developed by Hulk and Müller; states that influence will occur in bilingual acquisition in areas of particular difficulty, even for monolingual native language acquisition. It re-examined the extent of the differentiation of the language systems due to the interaction in difficult areas of bilingual acquisition. Evidence for this hypothesis comes from delay, acceleration, and transfer in particular areas of bilingual language acquisition. Research has contributed to the understanding of CrossLx

Influence in areas of structural overlap, directionality, dominance, interfaces, the role of input, and the role of processing and production. Full immersion 90/10, programs teach in the partner language 90% of the time in the primary grades (usually kindergarten and first grade) and 10% in English, and gradually adjust the ratio each year until the partner language is used 50% and English is used 50% by third or fourth grade (sometimes later if the program extends through eighth grade or beyond). 50/50, programs teach 50% of the day in English and 50% of the day in the partner language at all grade levels. Partial Immersion teaches less than 50% of the time and usually focuses on one content area, either language arts, math or science. Seals of Biliteracy a form of special recognition on high school diplomas and student transcripts for students (ELLs and nonELLs) who can demonstrate fluency in two or more languages. Acculturation process of social, psychological, and cultural change that stems from the balancing of two cultures while adapting to the prevailing culture of the society; a process in which an individual adopt, acquires and adjust to a new cultural environment. Individuals of a differing culture try to incorporate themselves into the new more prevalent culture by participating in aspects of the more prevalent culture. Code switching language alternation occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation. 1940s and the 1950s, many scholars considered this to be a substandard use of language. Since the 1980s, however, most scholars have come to regard it as a normal, natural product of bilingual and multilingual language use. REASONS FOR IT: A particular topic, Quoting someone, Solidarity and gratitude, Clarification, Group identity, To soften or strengthen command, Lexical need; TYPES: Intersentential (occurs outside the sentence or the clause level), Intra sentential (occurs within the sentence or the clause level), Tag (phrase or word), Intra word (within word itself at morpheme level).

Language mixing research explains it as a natural result of predictable developmental stages. In addition, researchers have attempted to address concerns about developmental problems related to language mixing. Parents may see it as evidence of confusion due to the simultaneous acquisition of two languages; term used to describe the phenomenon of communication through the usage of two languages as if they were one language TAESCHNER'S BILINGUAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL 1983 proposes that children pass through three phases throughout the process of acquiring their languages: first phase, the bilingual child has one lexical system which represents both of the languages that they are acquiring; second phase of development, the child is beginning to separate their vocabularies; third phase of language development, the child has achieved almost complete separation of the two languages; PROBLEM: over-generalizes the subject. Interlanguage an idiolect that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) which preserves some features of their first language (or L1), and can also overgeneralize some L2 writing and speaking rules. These two characteristics of an interlanguage result in the system's unique linguistic organization. Hypothesis rose to prominence after Contrastive Analysis. Communication accommodation theory (CAT) 1990s, a theory of communication developed by Howard Giles. This theory concerns "(1) the behavioral changes that people make to attune their communication to their partner, and (2) the extent to which people perceive their partner as appropriately attuning to them." This theory is concerned with the links between language, context, and identity. It focuses on both the intergroup and interpersonal factors that lead to it, as well as the ways that power, macro and micro-context concerns affect communication behaviors. Translation the communication of the meaning of a source language text by means of an equivalent target language text. Language Allocation Policy

a systematic plan for language development which guides programmatic and curricular decisions for students until they acquire academic proficiency in English. Language Transfer refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from one language to another language. It is the transfer of linguistic features between languages in the speech repertoire of a bilingual or multilingual individual, whether from first ("L1") to second ("L2"), second to first or many other relationships. When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive transfer: here, the "correct" meaning is in line with most native speakers' notions of acceptability. An example is the use of cognates. However, language interference is most often discussed as a source of errors known as negative transfer, which occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages. Contrastive analysis comparing and contrasting similarities and differences, including nonexistent features, in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, and usage of different languages to facilitate development of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in the primary and target languages; the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected. Bilingual educational theory states that children can most easily acquire fluency in a second language by first acquiring fluency in their native language. Fluency is defined as linguistic fluency (such as speaking) as well as literacy (such as reading and writing). This approach to bilingual education is among those most commonly implemented in public schools across the United States. Stephen Krashen's Language Acquisition Theory 1980s; acquisition and learning two separate processes, acquisition is unconscious, learning is formal knowledge, five hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis; the Monitor hypothesis; the Natural Order hypothesis; the Input hypothesis; and the Affective Filter hypothesis. Natural Order Krashen Theory, suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable; E.g. grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late; Krashen

points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not exemplar for curriculum; FOUR STAGES: Preproduction (Non-verbal), Early Production (Words), Speech Emergence (Simple Sentences), Intermediate Fluency (More complex sentences) Monitor error detecting mechanism that scans utterances for accuracy to correct; SHOULD BE AVOIDED during early language development because can inhibit acquisition; explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the learned language on the acquired language; extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self- confidence is frequently related to the over-use. Input need to be comprehensible within proximal development zone; should be embedded in meaningful context, modified, collaborative/interactive, and multimodal; only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. Affective Filter when low, optimal input occurs; is a screen of emotion that can block Lg acquisition or learning (e.g. self-conscientious, embarrassment, motivation, anxiety); inhibits learners from taking risks in communicative exchanges Cultural Adaption/Cultural Shock honeymoon (new culture exciting), disintegration (new culture confuses, isolates, depresses), re- integration (increased ability to function but rejects new culture), autonomy (objective view of cultural differences, confidence grows), independence (achieved biculturality) L1 first language, can be used in translation as a teaching technique; learners can research in L1, present in L2; more for beginners; useful for pair and group work and checking comprehension L2 second language, preferred at intermediate levels of language learning Listening Comprehension Approach to Lg Learning

1960s, James J. Asher, students acquire receptive skills through intensive practice by listening and physically reacting to the message they hear, not required to produce spoken lg til after physical response (i.e. walking, standing, pointing) to varied input (i.e. instructor gestures, actions, commands). Natural Approach 1970s, Tracy D. Terrell, based on Krashen' acquisition theory vs learning and input theories; instructor maintains target lg, modifies speech somewhat, using class time for communicative activities where meaningful lg exchanged. TEST: ORAL AudioLingual Method 1960s, U.S. Defense Forces lg program after WW2; based on behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement; instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction: everything is simply memorized in form. The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proved its weakness. It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence. TEST: REPEAT, DIALOGUE, DRILL, correct repetition indicates higher proficiency Grammatical Method derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin; Grammar rules are learned deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the target language. More attention is paid to the form of the sentences being translated than to their content. U.S. hs lg teaching textbooks. TEST: listening exercises test listening ability, not development Communicative Approach based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning; cultural and intra cultural learning; role playing; real life situations: READING, WRITING, CONVERSATION, CULTURE; informal and off hand techniques; cultural media in L2 ; focus on culture culture culture. TEST: portfolios and projects with CULTURE s the focus and casual conversation. Content Based Approach

designed to provide second-language learners instruction in content and language; authentic materials used; learners gradually acquire greater control of the English language, enabling them to participate more fully in an increasingly complex academic & social environment; AVHS does this. TEST: research projects with cited sources with product that shares information. Total Physical Response Method developed by James Asher, based on the coordination of language and physical movement; instructors give commands to students in the target language with body movements, and students respond with whole-body actions; used to develop vocabulary, some grammar, narrative structures. TEST: observational. Discourse Analysis Zellig S. Harris, 1952, the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'; second language teachers can use discourse analytic techniques to investigate the interaction patterns in their classrooms and to see how these patterns promote or hinder opportunities for learners to practice the target language; one of the goals of second language teaching is to expose learners to different discourse patterns in different texts and interactions. Pragmatics Charles W. Morris, Deixis, Conversational implicature, presupposition, speech acts, conversational structure; learners can gain proficiency in interpreting and communicating speaker intentions. Keyes v. School District 1 (1983) the three-part test created in the Castañeda v. Pickard was used to decide that a school district in Denver, Colorado, had participated in intentionally separating white students from Mexican- American students. The court ordered for desegregation. United States v. State of Texas (1982) the Court ruled that the state of Texas had failed to provide opportunities for English learners, mainly of Latino descent, to overcome language barriers under the EEOA. State education agencies adopted bilingual services to be provided for those learning how to speak English. Flores v. Arizona (2000)

This case was first filed in 1992 from parents accusing schools for failing to provide adequate enough educational services for English language learners and in 2000, the court ruled that educational programs were not properly funded nor were enough teachers provided. As a result, the court ruled for sufficient educational resources to be implemented as of January 31, 2002, and in 2009, the Court ruled that the EEOA was officially violated. Burnett Act 1917, required all new immigrants to pass a literacy test and prohibited immigration from Asia, except for Japan and the Philippines. Such a measure reveals the closeness between racial prejudice and linguistic restrictions. At this time, the previous tolerance toward German speakers turned to hostility Title VI of the Civil Rights Act pertained to education became the paramount initiative for bilingual education in the United States. Title VI allowed funds to be withheld from school districts that maintained segregation or did not promote integration League of United Latin American Citizens organization was created in the 1920s with the goal of fighting the discriminatory treatment of Mexican Americans in public schools and to promote a better education for the Mexican American community. Other groups in defense of ethno-linguistic minorities were also established, such as the Mexican American Legal Defense Fund (MALDEF), which was formed under the advice of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). "back to basics" education 1980s, Reagan administration defined the United States as a "nation at risk of balkanization" and blamed non-English speaking communities for such a risk Senator S.I. Hayakawa 1981, introduced a constitutional amendment aimed at adopting English as the official language of the United States. Later, in 1983, he founded U.S. English, a non-profit organization that promotes English as the official language of the United States and discredits bilingual education Improving America's Schools Act