D265 CRITICAL THINKING BEST REVISION GUIDE ALREADY GRADED A, Exams of Business networking

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D265 CRITICAL THINKING BEST REVISION

GUIDE ALREADY GRADED A+

Critical Thinking - Solution The ability to think carefully about thinking and reasoning/to be critical of your own reasoning. Propositions - Solution The fundamental building blocks of arguments. They are a statement that can be true or false. Simple propositions - Solution They have no internal logic structure, they are simply true or false based on how the world is. Freedom should be the highest value for its citizens. - Solution Simple proposition Complex propositions - Solution They have internal logic structure, and whether they are true or false depends on if their parts are true or false. If freedom should be the highest value for its citizens, then we should promote it in our laws and policies. - Solution Complex proposition Argument - Solution Contains at least two statements or propositions: a conclusion and one or more premises that lend support to the conclusion. Premise - Solution A proposition that supports the conclusion. Conclusion Indicators - Solution Therefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that, wherefore, as a result. Premise Indicators - Solution Because, for, given that, in that, as, since, indicated by. Conclusion - Solution The claim that the whole argument is intended to support or prove. Deduction - Solution Arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion.

Types of arguments that are deductive - Solution Mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition. Induction - Solution Arguments where the premises make the conclusion likely to be true. Types of arguments that are inductive/ampliative - Solution Analogies, authority, casual inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations. P1: Monty is in Bejing P2: It is impossible to get here from Bejing in an afternoon Conclusion: Monty won't be at the party - Solution Deductive argument P1: Monty is really shy P2: Monty rarely goes to parties Conclusion: Monty won't be at the party - Solution Inductive/ampliative argument Soundness/Validity - Solution Elements of a deductive argument Validity - Solution If true, the premises make the conclusion true Soundness - Solution The argument's premises guarantee the conclusion when true (Validity), and all premises are true Strength/Cogency - Solution Elements of an inductive argument Strength - Solution The premises give probable support for the conclusion. Cogent - Solution The premises give probable support towards the conclusion when true (Strength), and all premises are true Fallacy - Solution A defect in reasoning Formal Fallacy - Solution A defect in the structure of an argument Informal Fallacy - Solution A defect in the content of an argument

Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent) basic structure - Solution P1. If X, then Y P2. X C: Therefore, Y No Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am in Rome. C: Therefore, I am in Italy - Solution Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent) Affirming the Consequent basic structure - Solution P1. If X, then Y P2. Y C: Therefore, X Commits Formal Fallacy P1. If I am in Rome, then I'm in Italy. P2. I am in Italy. C: Therefore, I am in Rome - Solution Affirming the Consequent Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) basic structure - Solution P1. If X, then Y P2. Not Y C: Therefore, not X No Formal Fallacy P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am not in Italy C: Therefore, I am not in Rome - Solution Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) Denying the Antecedent basic structure - Solution P1. If X, then Y P2. Not X C: Therefore, not Y Commits Formal Fallacy

P1. If I'm in Rome, then I'm in Italy P2. I am not in Rome C: Therefore, I am not in Italy - Solution Denying the Antecedent Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning - Solution An argument where the premise restates the conclusion instead of supporting it. Arguing in a circle. P1. The Earth is ball-shaped C: Therefore, the Earth is a sphere - Solution Begging the Question (Informal Fallacy) The Fallacy Fallacy - Solution Occurs when the fact that a fallacy has been committed is used to justify rejecting someone's conclusion. They have committed the fallacy of begging the question, therefore we should reject their conclusion. - Solution The Fallacy Fallacy Bias - Solution Supporting a particular conclusion regardless of the evidence The Principle of Charity - Solution Interpreting a speaker's reasoning in the best possible light. This makes their position as strong and defensible as possible. Shae said, "It seems that the Earth is flat." Shae must mean that the Earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet is really round. - Solution The Principle of Charity Confirmation Bias - Solution The tendency to focus on evidence that confirms what an individual already believes, and to ignore evidence to the contrary. Cognitive Bias - Solution The way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us. Alief - Solution An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned out beliefs.

Heuristic - Solution a rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy that doesn't work all of the time, but one that gets us where we need to go most of the time. _______ can become issues when we want to engage in good reasoning, fair-mindedness, or intellectual virtue. - Solution Heuristics The Representative Heuristic - Solution a mental Heuristic whereby people try to understand/judge a situation by means of situations in memories that bear similarities to it Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic - Solution When someone clusters their guesses around a given anchor The Anchoring Bias - Solution a tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information The Availability Heuristic - Solution When one makes a judgment regarding a new situation using only information that is readily available without considering additional information or evidence that may affect the situation. Algorithm Bubble - Solution The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on. A true random sample - Solution The way individuals were put into the sample was done using random methods that were not biased in favor of any particular subgroup. A true representative sample - Solution Individuals in the sample are varied enough to give a good idea of all beliefs and ideas. Statistics can be __________ very easily. - Solution manipulated Selection bias - Solution This bias occurs when the sample from which it is generalized is not representative of the general population. A report concludes that people who drive red cars get more speeding tickets than people who drive other color cars. Based on this report, an

individual concludes that red cars encourage people to drive fast. Which bias does this conclusion illustrate? - Solution Selection bias A young person is wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a Volkswagen (VW) bus. Based on this, another individual concludes that this person has liberal political views. Which bias does this reasoning reflect? - Solution Representative Bias When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude that cycling accidents are fairly likely. Which bias does this best represent? - Solution Availability Bias What kind of actions can strong critical thinkers take to minimize bias in their thinking? - Solution Broaden sources of information and slow their thought processes. An individual does not believe the moon landing ever occurred. She claims there are plenty of internet postings that agree with this idea, and while photos, documentation, witness accounts, and physical evidence of a moon landing may exist, these are all things that can easily be manufactured by the government, which cannot be trusted. Which argumentation bias does this passage illustrate? - Solution Confirmation Bias System 1 thinking: - Solution quick, automatic, and emotional System 2 thinking: - Solution deliberate, effortful, and calculating The Ad Hominem Fallacy - Solution When someone attacks the arguer instead of the argument. The Genetic Fallacy - Solution When someone critiques the origin of a claim rather than the claim or argument itself. The Straw Figure/Straw man Fallacy - Solution When someone willfully or mistakenly misinterprets someone else's argument or position. They often interpret their opponents position to make it indefensible. A Red Herring - Solution A distraction. When someone intentionally or unintentionally changes the subject entirely when an arguer doesn't want to

answer a question. This distraction is not used as an answer, but just as a different subject entirely. An Irrelevant Appeal - Solution Any kind of appeal to a factor, consideration, or reason that isn't relevant to the argument at hand. It is used as a reason/answer to the question rather than a distraction. Appeal to Authority Fallacy - Solution When we trust an authority on one subject to speak on a different subject they don't have expertise in. Appeal to Force Fallacy - Solution When a threat is used as a justification for the claim in an argument. "If you don't believe this, then I'm going to hurt you" - Solution Appeal to Force Fallacy Appeal to the People (Ad Populum) Fallacy - Solution Appealing to the popularity of a thing, idea, or practice in order to justify that thing, idea, or practice. The Appeal to Consequences Fallacy - Solution occurs when an arguer attempts to persuade the audience to accept a conclusion based on the perceived consequence of that conclusion The Fallacy of Equivocation - Solution Using the same term in an argument in different places but the word has different meanings. "Children are a headache. Aspirin will make headaches go away. Therefore, aspirin will make children go away." - Solution The Fallacy of Equivocation The Slippery Slope Fallacy - Solution This fallacy is committed when one event is said to lead to some other event via a chain of intermediary events. The Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy - Solution When someone cherry-picks data to suit which conclusion they'd like to prove. They already know the conclusion they want before researching. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc/Post Hoc Fallacy - Solution Occurs when someone mistakes correlation for causation. Just because something

regularly follows another thing, doesn't mean that it is caused by that other thing. As the saying goes, correlation does not imply causation Nowhere is this fallacy more in evidence than in our evaluation of the performance of presidents of the United States. Everything that happens during or immediately after their administrations tends to be pinned on them. - Solution Post Hoc Fallacy The Fallacy of Hasty Generalization - Solution When one jumps to a conclusion about a group of people, things, or events, but does so too quickly and without enough evidence or with too small a sample. Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery. Which fallacy did Jones commit? - Solution Post Hoc Fallacy The Fallacy of "Burden Shifting" - Solution When one decides that someone else must prove them wrong when they are the one with the burden of proof, as in they should prove themselves right. The False Dilemma Fallacy - Solution When someone assumes that only two options are available for consideration when there are actually more. Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this: Either p is true or q is true. Q is not true. Therefore, p is true. However, there is a third option, r. - Solution The False Dilemma Fallacy