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CBIO 2200 Study Guide

1/10/ Anatomy—Study of structure, answers “what is it?” Physiology—Study of function, answers “how does it work?”

Anatomical position: -Erect human body with feet flat on the floor -Palms facing forward/outward with hands down -Eyes facing forward -Arm is supinated (opposite is pronation)

Anatomical Language: Anterior=Front Posterior=Back Ex. Sternum is anterior to vertebral coloumn Superior=Above Inferior=Below Ex. Nose is superior to lips Medial=midline Lateral=away from midline Ex. Ear is lateral to nose (referencing the midline of the human body) Proximal=Near Distal=away Ex. Elbow is proximal to carpal (referencing the limbs to the major limb joints) Ipsilateral=Same side Contralateral=opposite sides Ex. The right ear is Ipsilateral to the right eye

Anatomical Planes: -Transverse Plane—Divides body into upper and lower portions -Coronal/Frontal Plane—Divides body into anterior and posterior portions -Sagittal Plane—Divides body into left and right portions -Midsagittal Plane—Divides straight in the middle at the midline

Dividing Body Regions: -The Abdomen can be divided into 4 quadrants and into 9 regions

Body Cavities

Cavities that are open to the exterior—Nasal, lined with mucous membrane

Cavities that are closed—do not open to the exterior

Anterior Body Cavity -Thoracic Cavity -2 Pleural cavities Houses the Lungs -Cardiac cavities Houses the Heart -Mediastinum Separates the pleural cavities and houses the thymus, trachea, esophagus and the large blood vessels -Abdomincalpelvic cavity -Abdominal cavity Houses the digestive organs -Pelvic cavity Houses urinary organs Posterior Body Cavity (filled with Cerebral Spinal Fluid CSF) -Cranial Cavity Houses the brain There are 3 layers that cover the cavity collective called the 3 meninges -Dura Mater (outer layer)--tough -Arachinoid membrane-looks like a web -Pia Mater (inner layer)--delicate -Vertebral cavity Houses the spinal cord

Anterior Body Cavity Make Up

• All lined with “Serous” or “Serosa” Membrane (a double layer membrane) Parietal = Outer layer lining cavity Visceral= Inner layer lining the organ Peri Around Epi Above Epicardium Visceral pericardium

Ex. What is Visceral Pericardium? Inner layer of the serosa membrane that covers the heart

What is Parietal Pleural? Outer layer of serosa membrane that lines the cavity in which the lungs are located Abdominal Pelvic Cavity Make Up -Housing all of the visceral of abdomen Ex. What is Vsiceral Peritoneum? Inner layer of the serosa membrane that lines the organs of the abdominal region What is Parietal peritoneum? Outer layer of the serosa membrane that lines the cavity in which the organs of the abdominal region are located

Mediastinum The partition that separates the 2 pleural cavities Contains the pericardial cavity, trachea, esophagus, thymus gland Thymus gland -The thymus gland is large in children and starts to shrink at the age of 7 to almost disappearing at the age of 100 -Secretes hormone called Thymosine -Used for maturation and differentiation of your T cells (T-lymphocytes) -Very important in immunity Serosa Membranes and Mesentery Double layers of the peritoneum that covers the abdominal region Posterior Mesentery -Continuation (infolding) of the serosa membrane -Attaches small intestines to posterior body wall Mesocolon -Mesentery that attaches(suspends) the large intestine (colon) Anterior Mesentery (used for organ suspensinon) -Infolding of mesentery turns fatty -Greater Omentum--hanging from the stomach and covering the small intestines -Lesser Omentum—attaches inferior region of liver to stomach Retroperitoneum Space in the abdominal cavity behind/posterior to(retro) the peritoneum. Organs that are retroperitoneal only have peritioneum on their anterior side Ex. Kidneys, Aorta, Pancreas

Metabolism The Sum of energy processes in the body Catabolism -Biochemical reactions that produce energy by degrading large molecules into smaller molecules Ex. Glucose + O2Co2+H2O (Makes 38ATP) Anabolism -Biochemical reactions that use energy to produce larger molecules Ex. Amino Acids +Energy large protein molecules Homeostasis -Homeo= home, stasis=constant

• Body’s ability to maintain its internal environment, “stable” despite changes in external environment Ex. Body Temp= 98.6F, 37C Ex. Glucose level in blood= 80-100mg/100ml <<80 = hypoglycemia

  110= hyperglycemia

After a Big Meal Glucose level increases, stimulating the beta cells of the islets of langerhans (pancreas) to secrete Insulin, which reaches the liver. Liver converts glucose to Glycogen in the liver and muscles. Liver acts as a storage site for glucose in the form of glycogen

EatGlucose Increasesbeta cells of pancreas stimulatedsecretes insulininsulin reaches liver liver and muscle converts glucose to glycogenglycogen is stored in liver Insulin lowers Glucose level in Blood

Starvation Glucose levels dropalpha cells are stimulatedwhich secretes GlucagonGlucagon stimulates break down of Glycogen TO Glucose in liver Glucagon increase Glucose level in Blood

The Body Uses Feed Back Mechanism to Maintain Homeostasis

Negative Feed Back T3= Triiodothyronine, T4=Tetraiodothyronine Excess T3 and T4 inhibits the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary TRH=Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone TSH=Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

The hypothalamus secretes TRH (Thyrotropin Releasing

Hormone which reaches the Anterior Pituitary which

secretes TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) as a result

which goes to the Thyroid Gland which secretes thyroid

hormones including t3 (Triiodothyronine) and t4 (Tetraiodothyronine). In creating excess

amounts of thyroid hormones, the thyroid gland inhibits the Hypothalamus and Anterior

Pituitary from secreting TRH and TSH, respectively.

Positive Feed Back Posterior Pituitary= Storage gland for Oxytocin (nonapeptide) OT=Love bonding hormone, memory, uterus contraction during labor

During labor, Cervis will send nerve impulses to hypothalamus where OT will be further secreted to cause more contractions

You can also get Positive Feed Back involving breast feeding

 Mechanism to maintain homeostasis

o Neuronal Regulation of Blood Pressure

 Short-term fluctuation of blood pressure (I.E. jumping out of bed quickly).

Baroreceptors; special sensory cells found in some major arteries

supplying the brain. Once baroreceptors sense low blood pressure, they

send nerve impulses to CNS, which responds and sends nerve impulses to

heart (leading heart rate to rise). A high heart rate pumps more blood

which compensates for short term drop in blood pressure.

 Long-term drop in blood pressure (Hypotension) Specialized cells of

kidneys sense low BP. Kidneys secrete Renin (enzyme). Renin cleaves

(breaks down) Angiotensinogen (large protein secreted by liver) into

“Angiotensin I” (10 amino acid molecules), which is further converted to

“Angiotensin II” (8 amino acid molecules) by ACE (Angiotensin Converting

Enzyme). Ag II brings BP back up to normal and is a powerful

vasoconstrictor.

 Levels of Organization in Human Body

o Systems

 Integumentary System- Skin

 Urinary System

 Cardiovascular System

 Respiratory

 Endocrine

 Nervous

 Muscular

 Digestive

 Skeletal

 Reproductive

 Immune- Lymphatic

o Organs

o Tissues (Study of tissues- Histology)

 Connective

 Nervous

 Muscular

 Epithelial- skin

o Cells- structural, functional unit of life

 Study of cells- cytology

 “Cell Theory”- Any living organism is made of cells.

o Organelles

 Mitochondria, nucleus, golgi apparatus

o Molecules (DNA, Protein…)

 Carbohydrates

 Lipids

 Nucleic Acids

 Proteins (Made of amino acids)

o Atoms

 Carbon

 Nitrogen

 Oxygen

 Hydrogen

 All organic materials made of carbon.

 Proteins are made from Nitrogen.

 Water is Hydrogen and Oxygen.

 Example of how organ systems interact

o Vitamin D Synthesis - UV light/heat activates the Keratinocytes in skin which convert

cholesterol precursor to Vitamin D-3 (weakest form of Vitamin D). Vitamin D-3 is

converted into Calcidiol by the liver. Calcidiol is converted into Calcitriol (most active

form of Vitamin D) by the kidney. Calcitriol goes to small intestine and stimulates cells of

S.I. to absorb calcium from meals; calcium incorporated into bones.

o “Iodine” needed in trace amounts by thyroid gland for thyroid hormone synthesis (T3,

T4). Without Iodine, thyroid gland cannot produce T3, T4. Over stimulation of thyroid

gland results in Endemic Goiter.

I. Proteins Amino acids-Building Blocks of Proteins Gly, Ala, Phe(Essential) -Phenylalanine cannot be synthesized on its own, essential amino acid, eat foods with Phe -Phenylalanine Hydroxilase (enzyme) which adds OH to make Tyrosine. -If Phe Hydroxilase does not work, a genetic disorder occurs. -The accumulation of Phenylalanine is converted into Phenyl Ketones instead of Tyrosine -Phenyl Ketones hurt the nervous system causing mental retardation -Recessive Genetic Disorder Produces NON FUNCTIONAL PAH, which causes PKU (PhenylKetonUria) -PKU= Phenylketones appear in urine -Babies with PKU will have strict diet that is almost free of phenylalanine. -Babies still needs small amounts of Phe

Sulfur Containing Amino Acids Cysteine- contributes to the stabilization of proteins using Disulfide Bonds (very strong covalent bonds)

Methionine—First Amino Acid to be assembled in Translation/Protein synthesis which takes place at the ribosome Ex. Met-AA-AA-AA-AA Disulfide bonds form when Sulfur groups are in close proximity

Lysozymes —Enzymatic proteins that have disulfide bonds Used for degrading cell walls of bacteria Present in Lacrimal secretion (tears) and saliva Function: Degradation of bacterial cell wall

Peptide Bonds Forms from dehydration/condensation reactions and produces water Peptides – Made up of Amino acids linked together by peptide bonds (covalent bonds)

Amino Acids

II. Carbohydrates -Macromolecule, complex polysaccharides, complex sugars

• Structural unit is “simple sugars” or monosaccharides Ex. Pentose Hexose 5 Carbon 6 Carbon Ribose Glucose Deoxyribose Galactose

Gly(Glycine)

Ala (Alanine)

Phe (Phenylalanine)

Cys (Cysteine)

Met (Methionine)

Tyr (Tyrosine)

Ribose Deoxyribose C5H10O5 C5H11O

How to make Polysaccharides

-Condensation of 2 monosaccharidesDisaccharides

Ex. Glucose + Galactose  Lactose (Milk sugar)

Polysaccharides are the most complex sugars which are made up of monosaccharides linked to together by Glycosidic Bonds

Glycoprotein= sugar + protein Ex. TSH = Thyroid Stimulating Hormone TSH reaches the follicular cells of the Thyroid Gland releasing T3 and T4.

III. Lipids Most lipids are made up of structural units called Fatty Acids.

Fatty Acids -Carboxyl group -Long chain of carbon and Hydrogen Fatty acids can be Saturated (no double bonds in tail) or Unsaturated (at least one double bond in tails)

Fatty Acids

Naturally occurring unsaturated FAs can be degraded quickly/easily

Trans FAs are resistant to degradation allowing for longer shelf life, but are not degraded as easily and are not good for health.

Polyunsaturated FAs Ex. Arachidonic Acid = C Common component of phospholipid molecules found in plasma membrane of many cells

Phospholipid Molecules (Amphibolic) Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-Bisphosphate

Contains: -Glycerol Backbone (3 carbon alcohol) -2 Fatty Acid tails -Phosphate group -Polar Molecule There can be Mono, Di, and Tri-glycerides Phosphatidylcholine

Cholesterol It is a steroid Ex. Testosterone, Estrogen, Aldosterone, Vitamin D

IV Nucleic Acids DNA=Deoxyribonucleic Acid (missing – OH at C2) RNA=Ribonucleic Acid Nucleic acids are made up of Nucleotides

Each nucleotide consists of: -Nitrogen Base -Sugar (pentose) -Phosphate group

DNA is linked by Phosphodiester Bonds

DNA RNA

of strands Double strand, Antiparallel One single strand

Nitrogen Bases A, G, C, T A, G, C, U Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose Role Replication, Transcription Translation Place Nucleus Out of Nucleus using ribosomes

Ex. ATP= Adenosine triphosphate AMP= Adenosine monophosphate UDP= Uridine diphoshphate

Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Nucleosides Nitrogen Bases Many nucleotides linked together by phosphodiester bonds

Nitrogen Base + Sugar+ Phosphate

Nitrogen base + sugar Adenosine Adenine Gaunosine Guanine Cytidine Cytosine Thymidine Thymine Uridine Uracil

The Cell The Cytoskeleton has 3 different fibers Microfilaments, Microtubules, Intermediate Filaments

Cell Structures

 Microvillus: Increases absorbing space. “Drinks” for the cell.  Cilium: Moves extracellular fluid. Has a 9+2 system.  Flagellum: 9+2 system also. o Basal Bodies: 9+0 system, direct formation of microtubules with flagellum and cilia. o Centrioles: 9+0 system, direct formation of microtubules of spindle fibers during cell division  Mitochondria: Site for ATP production (cellular respiration), 34 ATP are produced. o Formula:  Glucose + O 2  CO 2 + H 2 O  38 ATP  Ribosomes: Site for protein synthesis o Transcribed in nucleus Exits through nuclear pores o Translated in ribosomes

 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Initial processing of proteins

 Golgi Body: Final processing and packaging of proteins

 Lysosomes: Contains digestive enzymes

 Peroxisomes: Contains catalase

 Plasma Membrane: Phospholipid BiLayer

o Glycolipid + Glycoprotein = Glycocalyx  Plays a role in cell adhesions and recognition

o Other Functions of Plasma Membrane Proteins:  Act as transporters 1.) Channels: Passive transport (no ATP or cellular respiration required) Symport

2.) Pumps: Active transport (Needs ATP or cellular respiration)

Antiport

Transport Across Plasma Membrane

Small molecules/ions

 Passive Transport- Does not require ATP

o Filtration-Filters thru pores/slits in plasma membrane  Ex: Filtration in kidneys; rate: 180L/day

o Diffusion  Simple- Does not require protein carriers  Ex: CO 2 -O 2 exchange: O 2 diffuses thru capillary with CO 2 to create a gas exchange (external respiration)

 Facilitated- Requires protein carriers  Ex: Aquaporin

 Active Transport- Requires ATP

o Symport: Glucose-Sodium Channel (secondary active transport) o Antiport: Sodium-Potassium Pump (primary active transport) o Uniport: 1 type of substance transports in 1 direction  Ex: Cl-^ pump in trachea  Cl-^ is pumped actively  Na+^ follows as a result of electrical charge  H 2 O molecules follow by osmosis which creates water mucus molecules which allow movement of cilia

 Disfunctional Chloride Pump: mucus that is not secreted and builds up. This thick mucus causes infection from the buildup of bacteria accumulated from the mucus. (Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator) CFTR

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Coated Pit Coated Vesicle

 Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH) o Genetic disorder of high cholesterol. Disfunctional receptor protein.

Different functions of Plasma Membrane Proteins

o Enzymes: ATPase ex: Na+^ - K+^ pump o Adenylate Cyclase: Converts ATP to cyclic AMP and PPi

ATP (Adenosine TriPhosphate)  Cyclic AMP (Acts as 2nd^ messenger) + PPi (Pyrophospate)

Receptors/Recognition sites/Adhesion sites: Glucagon

1. Glucagon bonds to receptors CAM- Cell Adhesion Molecule
2. Activates G proteins cAMP- 2nd^ messenger
3. Activates Adenylate Cyclase Hormones other than glucagon that use cAMP
4. Converts ATP to cAMP and PPi -Epinephrine and TSH

Events at Neuromuscular Junction

1. Action Potential (Nerve Impulse, electrical charge) advances along Axon
2. AP reaches axonal terminal
3. Opens voltage-gated Ca+^ channels
4. Ca+^ rushes into terminal, leads to fusion of Ach vesicles into pre-synaptic membrane
5. Ach released into synapse  synaptic cleft (Exocytosis)
6. Ach binds to Ach receptors which acts as Ligand-gated cation channels
7. Cations diffuse into/out of skeletal muscle cell leading to development of AP a. Electrical through axon to pre-synaptic membrane, and chemical in synapse; electrical through skeletal muscle cell causing…
8. Muscle cells to contract
9. Ach is degraded by an enzyme protein associated with plasma membrane called Acetyl Cholinestrase (AChE)

ACh  Acetate + Choline (taken by neurons for synthesis of new Ach molecules)

AChE