Developmental Psychology: Theories and Concepts, Exams of Psychology

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PSYC 323 Final Exam with correct

answers

Cohort Effects - correct answer -relative similarities of a person's birth, era, or generation. (ie. millennials) Continuity vs. Discontinuity - correct answer -continuity: development is gradual and occurs slowly discontinuity: sudden changes (age-related stages) Scientific Method - correct answer -1. conceptualize

2. collect data
3. draw conclusions
4. revise Freuds Theoretical Orientation - correct answer -Psychoanalytic Theory

• oral (birth-1yr)
• anal (1-3yrs) -phallic (3-6yrs) interest in genitals -latency (6yrs-puberty) suppressed sexual interest -genital (puberty+) pleasure comes from someone outside the family Eriksons Theoretical Orientation - correct answer -(Psychoanalytic) 8 Stages

1. trust vs mistrust
2. autonomy vs shame
3. initiative vs guilt
4. industry vs inferiority
5. identity vs identity confusion
6. intimacy vs isolation
7. generativity vs stagnation

8. integrity vs despair Piagets Theoretical Orientation - correct answer -(Cognitive) 4 stages
9. Sensorimotor (birth-2yrs) sensory input & movement
10. Preoperational (2-7yrs) world in words & symbols
11. Concrete Operational (7-11yrs) logical reasoning & ability to classify objects
12. Formal Operations (12yrs+) abstract, idealistic, & logical reasoning Vygotskys Theoretical Orientation - correct answer -(Cognitive) Zone of Proximal Development Information-Processing Theoretical Orientation - correct answer -(Cognitive) individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it, hence, individuals can engage in thinking and memorization.
13. perceive
14. encode
15. represent
16. store
17. retrieve Behavioural & Social Cognitive Theories - correct answer -- Pavlov: classical conditioning

• Skinner: operant conditioning, rewards will create a behaviour response
• Bandura: social cognitive theory, behaviour + environment + cognition, heavy focus on observational learning Lorenz Theoretical Orientation - correct answer -(Ethological) - behaviour influence by biology stated there are critical periods of development (ie. duck imprinting) Brofenbrenner Theoretical Orientation - correct answer -(Ecological) Levels of Ecological Impact

1. Microsystems - first contacts
2. Mesosystems - connections among immediete settings
3. Exosystems - social settings that indirectly have effect
4. Macrosystem - culture in which a person lives
5. Chronosystem - events across the lifespan Ethnic gloss - correct answer -assigning an ehtnic label in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being homogenous Human Genome Outcomes - correct answer -- Genome wide ass. method: ability to detect genetic abnormalities

• Linkage analysis: ability to find mutated gene as a result of it being closely displayed in ancestry
• next generation sequencing: tech advancements that reduce costs Genetic Principles (4) - correct answer -- dominant-recessive
• sex-linked
• gene imprinting
• polygenic inheritance Heredity and Environment Correlations - correct answer -1. Passive: inheritance of genes and parent replication of their own genetic tendencies (ie. parents who play sport will have kids that play sports)

2. Evocative: genetic tendencies elicit stimulation from the environment (ie. an extravert gets more smiles from others)
3. Active: children actively seek out niches that reflect their own interests and talents prescribed by their genotype (ie. going to a library because you have interest in reading) Epigenetic view - correct answer -bidirectional relationship between environment and heredity Gene x Environment Interaction - correct answer -ie. a gene that will only cause depression if the situational experiences trigger it.

Periods of Prenatal Development - correct answer -1. Germinal <2weeks

2. Embryonic 2-8weeks - amnion, umbilical, organogenesis, and cell layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)
3. Fetal 2mo+ Effect of Teratogen - correct answer -Dose Genetic suceptability (ie. mothers metabolism) Time of exposure Apgar Score - correct answer -3 = emergency 5 = may be developmental problems 7+ = good
4. heart rate
5. respirations
6. skin colour
7. muscle tone
8. reflex irritability Neurocontructivist View - correct answer -(a) biological processes & environment influence on brain development, (b) brain has plasticity and is context dependent, (c) brain development is closely linked to cognition Malnutrition: Maramus vs Kwashiorkor - correct answer -Maramus: insufficient protein-calorie intake resulting in a shrunken elderly appearance. Kwashiorkor: protein-deficit diet causing the feet and abdomen to swell with water Gesells Motor Movement Theory - correct answer -believed that motor milestones occur in sequence and are therefore the process of maturation (refuted by dynamic systems theory)

Dynamic Systems Theory - correct answer -motor skills develop from perceiving and acting; infants must perceive something in their environment that they then use these perceptions to fine-tune movements. Piagets Processes of Development - correct answer -- Schemes

• Assimilations
• Accomodations
• Oranization
• Equilibrium Piagets Sensimotor Stage of Cognitive Development - correct answer -1. reflexes

2. primary circular reactions
3. secondary circular reactions
4. Coordination of secondary reactions
5. Tertiary circular reactions
6. Internalization of schemes (p. 171) A not B Error - correct answer -the tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found rather than in the new location where it was last hidden Core Knowledge Approach - correct answer -infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems. Argues against Piaget (who believes in rapid cognitive development) Piagets Preopertional Stage of Cognitive Development - correct answer -1. Symbolic function: (2-4yrs) children use scribbles to represent their world. Limited by (a) egocentrism and (b) animism
7. Intuitive thought (4-7yrs): why?. limited by centration (attention on one characteristic only) and conservation (altering a substances appearance doesn't change its properties) Horizontal decalage - correct answer -Piaget's concept that similar abilities do not appear at the same time within a stage of development

Adolescent Egocentrism - correct answer -heightened self-consciousness, reflected in the belief that others are as interested in them as they are themselves, and in their sense of uniqueness and invincibility; can be separated into (a) imaginary audience, feeling they are the center of everyone's attention, and (b) personal fable, fictional or stretched realities to create a 'completely unique' situation & perception of invincibility (DISPROVED.. new research shows feelings of vulnerability). Scaffolding - correct answer -Changing the level of support. Reducing guidance as skill is developed. *Dialogue is an important tool Mechanism of Change in Cognitive Skills - correct answer -1. encoding

2. automaticity (ability to process with little effort)
3. strategy contruction metacognition - correct answer -knowing about knowing Types of Attention - correct answer -- selective

• divided
• sustained
• executive (forced, conscious attention)
• orienting/investigative (0-12mo direct their attention to what and where)
• joint attention (attention is inflicted by another whos attention is also on that stimuli) Dishabituation - correct answer -when you re-develop reaction to stimuli; restored response Baddley's Model of Working Memory - correct answer -- Schema theory (interpretation to fit your schema)
• fuzzy-trace (information is encoded into verbatim memory (specifics) and fuzzy trace (main idea))
• content knowledge & expertise (ability to memorize new information is based on what we already know about it)

impicit vs explicit memory - correct answer -implicit: occurs subconsciously (ie. riding a bike) explicit: conscious retrieval of memory Ways to increase memory span - correct answer -- rehearsal

• organization
• elaboration
• imagery Concepts - correct answer -cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas. 7-9mo 4 types of thinking - correct answer -1. Executive Function: umbrella term for higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development at the prefrontal cortex. Managing thought to engage in goal- oriented behaviour and exercise self-control.

2. Critical Thinking: thinking reflectively, productively, and evaluating the evidence. Includes mindfulness.
3. Scientific Thinking: identifying causal relations.
4. Solving-Problems: finding appropriate ways to solve a problem by (a) using rules, or (b) using analogies Child theory of mind - correct answer -awareness of one's own mental processes and the processes of others. Intelligence Tests - correct answer -1. Stanford-Binet (1905 scale)

• binet developed mental age

2. Wechlers Scale

• william stern developed intelligent quotient (IQ) = MA / CA x 100 Stenberg's Triarchic Theory - correct answer -(a) analytical, (b) creative, (c) practical

Gardners 8+1 Frames of Mind - correct answer -- verbal

• mathematical
• spatial
• kinesthetic
• musical
• intrapersonal
• interpersonal
• naturalist skills
• occupations Emotional Intelligence - correct answer -ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion, to use feeling to facilitate thought, and to manage emotions in oneself and others. Flynn Effect - correct answer -the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years Intellectual Disability - correct answer -condition of limited mental ability (a) IQ below 70, (b) difficulty adapting to everyday life, (c) exhibits these characteristics by age 18.
• can also be organic or familial Infinite generativity - correct answer -ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules 5 Rules of Language - correct answer -Phenology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics

fast mapping - correct answer -quick connection between a word and its referent; can be completed when child is offered comparison between known object and additional explanation Whole-language Approach - correct answer -reading instruction should parallel children's natural learning Broca's Area - correct answer -left frontal lobe of the brain used in speech production and grammatical understanding Wernicke's area - correct answer -region of left hemisphere involved in language processing Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device - correct answer -belief that humans are biologically prewired for language functionalist view of emotions - correct answer -emotions are relational rather than strictly internal; response to external situations Emotion - correct answer -feeling or affect that occurs when people are engaged in an interaction that is important to them, especially ones that influence their well-being Types of cries - correct answer -basic angry pain Chess & Thomas' Classification - correct answer -Easy Child - positive mood, establishes routine, adapts well to new situations Difficult Child - reacts negatively, cries frequently, irregular routines, slow to adapt Slow-to-warm-up Child - low activity level, somewhat negative, low intensity of mood Kagans Inhibition - correct answer -inhibition refers to avoidance, distress, or subdued affect to the unfamiliar (begins 7-9mo)

Rothbart & Bates' Classification - correct answer -Extraversion - positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, and sensation seeking (Kagan's uninhibited children) Negative Affectivity - fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort (Kagan's inhibited children) Effortful Control - focusing and shifting of emotions, perceptual sensitivity, low-intensity pleasure, strategies to soothe himself, keep arousal from getting too high goodness of fit - correct answer -the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with social referencing - correct answer -ability to 'read' the emotions of others and respond accordingly Theories of Attachment - correct answer -a) Freud - attachment to provider of oral satisfaction b) Harlow - feeding is not a crucial element but rather comfort and contact c) Erikson - trust vs mistrust d) Ethological perspective - importance of responsiveness; attachment is developed in stages

1. (birth-2mo) instinct to orient to any human figure
2. (2-7mo) focus on one figure
3. (7-24mo) specific attachments develop
4. 24mo+ awareness of other emotions and goals and they base their actions off of this awareness Individual differences in attachment - correct answer -1. Securely attached: will explore when caregiver is present; mildly protest when parent leaves; settle quickly when caregiver re-enters
5. Insecure Avoidant: avoids the mother; do not attach to mother in Strange Situation; don't protest when mother leaves room; no attachment when mother re-enters room
6. Insecure Resistant: cling to caregiver then protest by kicking or pushing away; cling to caregiver in Strange Situation; cries loudly and pushes away when mother returns and attempts comfort
7. Insecure Disorganized: babies might appear dazed and confused in Strange Situation; strong patterns of avoidance or resistance; or display specified behaviours (ie. fear around caregiver) self-esteem vs self-concept - correct answer -Self-esteem: a global evaluation of the self. Self-concept: domain-specific values of the self.

Psychosocial moratorium - correct answer -gap between childhood security and adult autonomy that adolescents experience as part of their identity exploration 4 Statuses of Identity - correct answer -Identity diffusion - no experience in crisis nor made commitments Identity foreclosure - made a commitment but have not experience crisis usually due to an authority assigning tasks Identity moratorium - engaged in crisis but commitments are unclear Identity achievement - undergone crisis and made commitment Adolescents require three things to move to identity achievement: - correct answer -1. Confidence they have parental support

2. Established sense of industry (industry vs inferiority, Erikson Stage 5)
3. Be able to adopt a self-reflective stance towards the future Gender role vs gender typing - correct answer -Gender role: set of expectations that prescribes how a gender should think, act, and feel. Gender typing: acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine role. Psychoanalytic theory of gender: - correct answer -Freuds theory that children take on similari roles of the same sex parent Rapport vs Report talk - correct answer -Rapport talk: way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships; enjoyed more by girls than boys. Report talk: talk that gives information (ie. public speaking); engaged in more by males than females. Girls are more 'people-oriented' and boys are 'thing-oriented' Piaget's Moral Development - correct answer -a) Heteronomous morality (age 4-7) children think justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world. b) Transition stage (age 7-10)

c) Autonomous morality (age 10+) awareness that rules and laws are created by people; consider intentions as well as the consequences. Immanent justice: if a rule is broken, punishment will be given immediately. Kohlberg's Theory - correct answer -Level 1 Stage 1: punishment and obediance Stage 2: individualism, purpose, & exchange Level 2 Stage 3: interpersonal expectaions & relationships Stage 4: social system morality Level 3 Stage 5: social contract, individual rights Stage 6: universal ethnic principles Care perspective - correct answer -moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness and emphasizes interpersonal communication. Social cognitive theory of morality - correct answer -distinction between an individual's moral competence and moral performance. Damons Description of Empathy Development - correct answer -1. early infancy: global empathy (response without understanding of why)

2. 1-2yrs: undifferentiated of discomfort (concern but cannot effectively take action)
3. early childhood: awareness of others perspectives, actions may be properly taken
4. 10-12yrs: empathy for people who live in unfortunate circumstances Determinants of Moral Personality - correct answer -1. Moral identity - when moral notions and commitments are central to one's life; evaluations of one's self-judgement and efforts to minimize bias and self-deception.
5. Moral character - having strong convictions, persisting, and overcoming obstacles; setting of moral goals & achieving these goals.

3. Moral exemplars - people who have lived extraordinary lives; three types of exemplars (a) brave, being dominant and extroverted, (b) caring, nutrurant and agreeable, and (c) just, being conscientious and open to experience. All exemplars include a core of honesty and dependability. Social-Cognitive Domain Theory - correct answer -there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning, (a) moral, (b) social conventional, & (c) personal domains. These are formed when children are faced with different forms of social experience. Social conventional reasoning - correct answer -conventional rules that have been established by social consensus in order to control behaviour and maintain the social system Merit vs Benevolence - correct answer -Merit: extra rewards given; Benevolence: giving special consideration to the disadvantaged (6) Types of Prosocial Behaviour in Adolescence - correct answer -Altruism Public Emotional Dire Anonymous Compliant index vs status offences - correct answer -Index offenses: criminal acts whether they are committed by juveniles or adults (robbery, rape, homicide, aggraavated assalt) Status offenses: performed by youth before an acceptable age (drinking, smoking, running away, sexual promiscuity) Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory - correct answer -1. Microsystem - setting where the individual lives (home, school, work)
4. Mesosystem - links between microsystems; family processes and peer relations
5. Exosystem - influences from another setting that the individual doesn't experience directly (parents work affects their mood and parenting style)
6. Macrosystem - culture in which the individual lives (Canada, Catholic)

5. Chronosystem - sociohistorical circumstances (increased divorce rates) Domain Specific Socialization (5) - correct answer -Protection Reciprocity Control Guided learning Group participation Baumrind's Parenting Styles - correct answer -Authoritarian - restrictive, punitive style Authoritative - encourages independence but places limits and rules Neglectful - very uninvolved Indulgent - very involved Peer statuses - correct answer -popular average neglected rejected controversial Functions of Play - correct answer -- Freud & Erikson: play to master anxieties and conflicts & to rid of tension and excess energy.

• Play therapy: therapy that allows children to work off frustrations and to analyze the child's conflicts and ways of coping with them. Children may feel less threatened to open up during play.
• Piaget & Vygotsky: play is a child's work; play advances cognition, cognition constrains play (Piaget); symbolic and make-believe aspects of play (Vygotsky) Types of Play - correct answer -1. Sensorimotor and Practice Play: Sensorimotor play: behaviour that allows infants to derive pleasure from exercising existing sensorimotor schemes. Practice play: repeating behaviour when new skills are being learned. Engaged throughout the lifespan.

2. Pretense/Symbolic Play: occurs when a child transforms the physical environment into a symbol. Preschool years the 'golden age' of symbolic play.
3. Social Play: involved interactions with peers and often invokes high degrees of pleasure.
4. Constructive Play: combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation of ideas. Self- regulated creation of a productor solution. Allowed in work-centered classrooms.
5. Games: activities engaged in for pleasure and are governed by rules. Often involves competition. Decline in popularity after age 12yrs. Functions of Friendship - correct answer -Companionship Stimulation Physical Support Ego Support Social Comparison Intimacy/Affection Cliques vs Crowds - correct answer -Cliques: range from 2-12 people who are usually the same sex and age. Crowds: larger group structures. Less personal,defined more by activities engaged in. Types of Instruction - correct answer -1. Constructivist: learner-centered approach to teaching that emphasizes the importance of individuals constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher.
6. Direct instruction
7. Child-centered Kindergarten: education that considers all aspects of the child, nurturing is key, emphasis on process of learning not what is learned, (a) child follows a unique developmental pattern, (b) learn best through firsthand experiences, (c) play is extremely important in total development.
8. Montessori Approach: children move from activity to activity as they desire Referral bias - correct answer -boys are more likely to be referred by teachers for treatment because of troublesome behavior