Developmental Psychology: Theories and Concepts, Exams of Advanced Education

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Human Growth and Development CLEP test

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nature vs. nurture controversy it is agreed that both have some influence in development, but some people think it is more one than the other. biologically built vs. environment tabula rasa this is what the human mind is at birth (according to the nurture side of the nature versus nurture controversy), like a blank slate that experience writes on Discontinuity or Stage Theories Argues that development progresses through a series of stages. Each stage involves a specific task. Once the stage is completed the child moves on to the next stage. The developing person is changing qualitatively, not quantitatively. Continuity Theories Suggest that development is best described as a steady growth process. Developmental change is described as occurring in small steps or increments. (Skills and behavior improve but they do not change in a qualitatively.) Child Development vs. Life Span Some theories of development argue that development is complete at the end of childhood/adolescence (Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget are examples). Life Span theories of development argue that growth and change continue to occur throughout the entire life span (Erick Erickson took a life span perspective). universality vs. context specific a theory that applies to all cultures and time periods (such as Piaget proposed for his theory) Bronfenbrenner is an example of the alternative view which points out that there are differences in

development depending on the culture/environment (such as in collectivist cultures versus individualistic cultures) Collectivist cultures Places greater value on the common good than individual achievement Individualistic cultures values individual achievements and the pursuit of individual goals accommodation by Piaget. modifying an existing scheme assimilation by Piaget. taking new information from the world and incorporating it into an existing scheme Scheme by Piaget. basic thought about the world, objects, events disequilibrium what happens when a child understands the world in a particular way (their scheme) then sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding. constructivism Piaget's position that argues that children construct schema (organized patterns of thought or action) based on experiences they have actively exploring the environment. Piaget's stages of cognitive development sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations (each stage represents a qualitatively different way of thinking instead of just acquiring more information over time) sensorimotor stage 0 - 2 years old. Lacks concept of object permanence until the end of this stage (understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be sensed) & knows what they can do with their senses. By the end of this stage they also have symbolic representation (when one thing stands for another thing) and deferred imitation (imitating a model's behavior awhile after it was observed). Piaget. preoperational stage 2 - 7 years old. They think symbolically (e.g. language), are egocentric (have trouble seeing things from others' perspectives), use transductive reasoning (not reasoning logically about cause and effect), use animitic thinking (projecting human abilities and traits onto inanimate objects), and think semilogically. Piaget. concrete operations 7 - 11 years old. Can understand transformation (an object changing form is still the same object), reversibility (starting at the conclusion and working back to the start), conservation (an objects mass, volume, weight, etc. doesn't change because its appearance changes),

can group things into categories, and think logically as long as it is not abstract. Piaget. Formal operations 12+ years old. They can handle hypotheticals/abstract and scientific reasoning, logical and systematic thinking (algebra, literary, metaphor). Although he thought not all people reach this stage of cognitive development, the end goal is hypothetico-deductive reasoning. Piaget. information processing approach a relatively new approach that uses the computer as a metaphor for the human mind (they use the two- store model of memory) learning theory or the behaviorist perspective describes developmental change as a product of learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories). Learning is a change in observable behavior (and behavior is controlled by stimuli in the environment). (key people: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura) John Watson founded the Behavioral Psychology in 1913. (he believed that at birth we only have these emotions: love, anger, and fear) learning theory/the behaviorist perspective = describes developmental change as a product of learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories). Pavlov's classical conditioning (sometimes called type S (stimulus) conditioning) Making a connection between two stimuli. The US already produces the UR (together producing a reflex) which is the desired response to the neutral stimulus. {First letter = unconditioned(maybe UC)/conditioned Second letter = stimulus/response} Before conditioning: US - > UR Conditioning: neutral stimulus [-> no response] + US - > UR After learning: CS - > CR (unless the original S is taken away, which would lead to extinction aka going back to the original behavior) higher conditioning = when a new neutral stimulus is associated with a CS Stimulus generalization When something from conditioning (or uncondtioned) carries over to another related area. You are afraid of spiders, you might become afraid of other bugs because they are so similar. stimulus discrimination

only showing the reflexive classical conditioning (or UC) response for the specific/exact stimulus (not similar ones like generalization) Watson and Little Albert The psychologist classically conditioned the infant to be afraid of a white rat, by pairing the white rat (a neutral stimuli) with a frightening, loud noise, causing the infant to associate the rat with the noise. type R (response) or operant conditioning by Skinner.

• Reinforcement is to increase (+) the behavior.
• Punishment is to decrease (-) the behavior.
• Positive is introducing something.
• Negative is taking away something. Shaping A form of behavioral modification for getting a subject to start performing a preferable behavior by reinforcing components of the desired behavior and gradually rewarding more discriminatively (similar actions are reinforced in a way that leads them to the desired goal). social learning theory/social cognitive theory by Bandura. changes in behavior are acquired not only by conditioning but also through observational learning (learning from models, which requires attention, retention, reproduction of the action, and motivation/a motive) vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment seeing others reinforced or punished (respectively) for certain behaviors influences how the viewer behaves psychodynamic/psychoanalytic personality theories (most hold that personality is mainly unconscious) descendants of/based on Freud's theories. (key people: Freud and Erikson) Id, Ego, Superego according to Freud's psychodynamic personality theory
• occurs at birth, Pleasure principle; unconscious instincts; irrational; seeks instant gratification; contains the libido
• Occurs around 6 months, reality principle; mediates id and reality; executive branch
• occurs around 6 years old, morality principle, personal consciences, personal ideals libido sexual energy in the id. Freud. Repression When unwanted/unacceptable thoughts are pushed down in the unconscious. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.)

Rationalization Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Reaction Formation Behaving exactly the opposite of one's true feelings. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Regression reversion to immature patterns of behavior (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Projection Attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, motives, or shortcomings to others. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Displacement Shifting unacceptable feelings from their original source to a safer, substitute target. ex. you are mad at our boss, but do not yell at your boss, instead you become angry with a family member when you return home (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Sublimation A useful socially acceptable course of behavior replaces a socially unacceptable or distasteful impulse. ex. A person who feels aggression due to lack of control, plays an aggressive game of basketball with friends everyday. (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Intellectualization By dealing with a stressful situation in an intellectual and unemotional manner, a person detaches him or herself from the stress (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) denial not admitting/acknowledging that a very unpleasant thing has happened (A defense mechanism recognized by Freud.) Freud's Psychosexual Stages Oral (birth - 1 year : mouth), Anal (1-3 years : potty training), Phallic (3-6 years : boy-girl-mom-dad-thing), Latency (6-11 years : none), Genital (adolescence : marriage) Freud said that these develop personality depending on how they are dealt with. (the first three being the most important) Erikson's theory of psycho-social development (a psychodynamic theory of personality) It says that people go through 8 stages in their life (each involving a different crisis). Depending on how the person deals with/comes out of each stage determines and develops their personality. trust vs. mistrust (birth-1 year) dependence on others, determining if others are reliable. Erikson. autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 years) capable of self control, determining how you are allowed to exercise freewill. Erikson.

initiative vs guilt (3-6 years) (in preschool) can set goals, determining if initiative is encouraged. Erikson. Industry vs inferiority (6-11 years) (school age) can reason and likes success, determining whether or not you are praised and taught to do so. And developing competence regarding various tasks. Erikson. Identity vs role confusion (adolescence) can reflect on identity and consider multiple roles, determining if you are willing to make an effort to integrate all of those roles. And understanding who you as an individual are (often influenced by the culture and time the person lives in). Erikson. Intimacy vs Isolation (young adulthood) ready to break away from family and form new intimate relationships, determining if you are ready to share yourself or not. Erikson. Generativity vs stagnation (adulthood) kids are gone - you're free, determining whether or not you are going to show interest in others/the next generation. (some people, who successfully pass this stage, take on a career that focuses on helping others during this stage) Erikson. Ego integrity vs.Despair (Late adulthood) reflecting on your life, determining if you are going to accept it all or not. Erikson. Sociocultural Theory of Development Argues that there is a bidirectional relationship between the child and the sociocultural environment. The child influences the people and environment that he or she interacts with, as much as those people and environments influence the child's development. (This is reciprocal determinism.) (key people: Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner) reciprocal determinism (by Bandura 1986) An important part of social-cognitive approach to personality. It shows that (1) how people think, (2) how people act, and (3) what their environment is like all interact to influence the consistency of behavior. Scaffolding/Guided Participation cognitive support provided to a younger thinker by a more advance thinker (such as older children and adults)/older adults transmit the values and beliefs of the culture to children. Vygotsky. Zone of Proximal (or Potential) Development (ZPD) The difference between (actual and potential skills) the skills a child develops alone and those that can be learned/achieved with the help of someone knowledgeable. Vygotsky. Lev Vygotsky Russian psychologist who created an alternative cognitive developmental theory to Piaget's theory. Believe that Piaget was Not taking into consideration social/sociocultural influences of cognitive development

[Sociocultural Theory of Development = the environment influences the child just as much as the child influences the environment] Ecological systems theory (also called bioecological approach) by Bronfenbrenner. Describes development as taking place within the context of several systems. A child's development is affected by several contexts or systems such as microsystems, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem microsystem The immediate environmental conext the child experiences directly, like the family. Bronfenbrenner. mesosystem the interrelationships between events of different microsystems. example, home and school. Bronfenbrenner. exosystem the contexts that significant others in the child's life directly experience but the child does not. example, parent's work. Bronfenbrenner. macrosystem the larger cultural context in which all other systems exist. Bronfenbrenner. natural selection The name Charles Darwin used for the process through which species evolve over time. Some get traits that help them survive, but others die out. ethology and evolutionary psychology sees human development based on Darwin's theory of evolution (key people: Konrad Lorenz and John Bowlby) Critical period (called the sensitive period in humans & by evolution theorists) a specific period in development when a certain event will have the greatest impact/must be developed. sample & population a representative subset of a population (in other words, less than all of the people from the population) & all of the people who fit under a particular category (such as all Americans, all high-school students with an eating disorder, etc.) random sample The term used for a sample of the target population that has been drawn using sampling technique that gave every member of the target population an equal chance of being selected (unlike biased sampling). Experiments A researcher manipulates variables to test theories, conclusions, and cause and effect relationships. Has independent and dependent variables. Researchers have direct control over the independent variable. Independent Variable Is the variable that is being manipulated (also the "cause")

dependent variable The variable that is measured after the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment. it is the hypothesized effect in the cause and effect relationship being tested. experimental group & control group exposed to the cause & not exposed to the cause/normal treatment quasi-experiment (field experiment) the researcher cannot control some of the variables of interest in the study and (unlike in the experimental design) cannot randomly assign participants to treatment conditions. This is done in natural settings. placebo effect & placebo & double blind study different behavior because the subject knows they are being tested/getting special treatment & fake special treatment & both experimenter and experimetee are unaware of who has recivied special treatment correlational studies assessing the relationship between two variables (excluding cause and effect relationships). This can be done in natural or laboratory settings. factors can have a positive, negative, or no correlation (rise in one factor corresponds in rise in another factor or rise in one factor corresponds to a fall in another factor, respectively) correlation coefficient (+/-)1, the higher the absolute value = more correlation, +/- indicates type of relationship, 0 is no relationship Descriptive or Observational Research Methods used to obtain accurate records of behavior without manipulating or controlling any variables. (includes naturalistic observation, case studies, and survey research/interviews) naturalistic observation studying behavior as it occurs in real life settings must be unobtrusive, and have inter-judge/inter-rater/inter-observer reliability (the confirmation by more than one person of what is happening) case studies in-depth analysis of only one person (Freud used these a lot). cross-sectional study Comparing people who are at different ages from each other at a single point in time. cohort a group of people born during the same period of time (generation). Cohorts make it hard to tell whether it is a factor of age or a factor of differences in the periods of time in which the subjects grew up. attrition (also called subject mortality) The loss of subjects in a research study over time due to participant drop- out.

longitudinal study Tracking the behavior of a single cohort over a long period of time The biggest problem is that age is confounded with the time of testing (the changing times could effect the subjects instead of their age). Sequential Research design by Schaie. A research method that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal design. This method can measure the changes that occur with age, differences between people who are different ages at one point in time and can also quantify birth cohort effects. (Every 10 years a new cohort group, at the starting age, is added and/or replaces a former group that has been tested for several decades.) Maturation The natural physical changes that occur due to a person's genetic code. Chromosomes The term for the biological structure in the cell's nucleus that contains genes. There are 46 in each cell, and they are grouped into 23 pairs. autosomes the 22 pairs of chromosomes that both genders have (they carry genetic material that controls all of our characteristics) Sex- Chromosomes The 23rd pair chromosomes (x and y) that carry the blueprint for the offspring's gender. A female has an XX pair and a male has an XY pair (meaning that the father's cell determines the baby's gender). Sperm & Ovum & Zygote the male reproductive cell & the female reproductive cell & the growing baby cell after the cells have merged Genotype The term used to describe all of the traits carried in a person's genetic material Phenotype The term for the traits that are actually physically seen in an individual rather than the sum total of inherited genetic material Genetic Counseling A service available to help couples make decisions about child bearing considering their chance of passing on genetic diseases to their offspring dominant and recessive genes genes controlling our characteristics are either one or the other of these. the first kind (d) is stronger and more powerful than the second kind (r). (this is important to consider when parents might pass diseases onto their offspring) they are paired dd, dr, or rr

• a d will always be expressed

• an r will only be expressed if it is not paired with a d (although the r can still be passed on to an offspring). Endocrine System The system of the body responsible for managing hormone levels in the blood stream Pituitary Gland Called the "Master Gland" this gland control other glands (including the thyroid and adrenal) in the endocrine system and secretes growth hormone. (It is controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain) Growth Hormone (GH) The hormone secreted by the pituitary gland which stimulates physical growth. In absence of this, you wouldn't grow taller than four feet. It also simulates the adolescent growth spurt. Androgens Sex hormones that control the development of sex organs as well as secondary characteristics (mainly in men) testosterone the male hormone that stimulates the development of male organs (instead of female ones) estrogen & progesterone the first is like the male androgens. these are produced by ovaries (which only females have) Adrenalin A hormone which is responsible for the body's flight or fight response. Helps the body prepare to respond to danger; however, It is also released when an individual experience stress. Has a negative long-term effect on the immune system of the body and is not good for pregnant women. Germinal Period The first trimester in prenatal development (pregnancy). The first two weeks. the placenta begins to form and the umbilical cord carries nourishment from and waste to the placenta. Embryo Period The second trimester in prenatal development (pregnancy). The second to eighth week of pregnancy. most vital organs and bodily systems begin to grow and the amniotic sac (a fluid filled sac that surrounds the forming baby) protects and provides a constant temperature for the embryo. major birth defects are often because of problems during this trimester. Fetus Period The third trimester in prenatal development (pregnancy). Lasting from the ninth week through the birth of the baby. muscles and bones form, vital organs continue to grow and begin to function, and in the last three months the brain develops rapidly. Monozygotic twins & Dizygotic twins identical twins (the same ovum separates) & fraternal twins (two ova were fertilized) artificial insemination & in vitro fertilization

options for couples who can not naturally produce offspring.

• the first is taking the father's cell and putting it in the mother.
• the second is when an egg if fertilized outside of the body then put in the mother. placenta provides the forming baby with nourishment and allows waste to pass out of the mother. the umbilical cord carries nourishment from this to the baby and waste to it from the baby. it begins growing in the germinal period. amniocentesis & chorionic villus sampling (CVS) ways to check for abnormalities in forming babies. the first can test fetal cells in amniotic fluid in the 16th week of pregnancy at the earliest & the second they test tiny hair cells of a membrane surrounding the fetus (called the chorion) as early as the 6th week of pregnancy Apgar scale a quick way to asses the overall condition of the neonate (which can be harmed due to certain conditions during birth) immediately after birth and again five minutes after birth Lateralization The term used to describe the fact that the left and right hemispheres of the brain control different functions. Moro a reflex of babies: extension of the arms when an infant feels a loss of support Babinski a reflex of babies: spreading the toes when the bottom of the foot is stimulated Proximodistal principle infant development starts from the the center (spine, torso, etc.) outward (ex. the vital organs begin to work before the arms and legs do) Cephalocaudal principle infant development from the head downward (ex. they can reach before they can walk). gross motor skills coordination of large parts of the body. children generally master these before fine motor skills (coordination of small parts of the body, such as fingers) infant physical growth the average newborn is 20 inches long, and weighs 7-7.5 pounds. infants reach about half their adult height by two years old (which makes infanthood a time of rapid physical development/growth spurt) puberty achieving full sexual maturity menarche & spermarche

the first menstrual cycle (female bleeding) a girl has. this is generally thought of a sign that she has reached puberty, although some girls cannot reproduce for several years after this. (the average age this happens is 12.5 but it could range from 11-15 years old) & the male equivalent (first ejection) obesity weighing 20% more than average for your age. this is a concern in adolescents as well as adults because their metabolism slows down from childhood. being overweight causes much more concern/risk of medical problems. climacteric/menopause (only in females) typically for 10 years in early 50s, makes the women unable to have more kids (barren). associated with mood fluctuations, hot flashes, and night sweats. osteoporosis bone disease where bones are brittle and fracture easily (typically in elderly people) habituation repeated presentations of stimuli reduces responses to that stimulus i.e. clock chiming sensation & perception taking outside stimulus into neural energy to be used for perception & mentally assigning meaning to the sensation Neonate Another name for newborn. cataracts clouding on the lens of the eye (they can lead to blindness if they aren't treated) intermodal using more than one sense in combination (which results in us associating certain sounds, sights, etc. For example, the smell of bacon makes us think of how bacon looks, etc.) absolute threshold minimum intensity necessary to detect a stimulus (defined as detected 50% of the time it is present) visual acuity a new born's eyesight is 20/400 to 20/800, but gets better rapidly over the first four months. newborns can track a moving object, but they move their whole head instead of just their eyes. perceptual consistency the four kinds are: size, shape, brightness/lightness, and color these help us to recognize object even in different situations/environments glaucoma & presbyopia a build-up of pressure from excess fluid inside the eyeball (common in people over 50 years old) & difficulty seeing close objects (common after the mid-late 40 years old) presbycusis

the loss of hearing associated with old age (Note: taste and smell also become less sensitive/sharp as people get old. smell gets worse than taste, especially in males) concept & prototype a basic element of thought that represents a class of objects, people or events that share common qualities & objects or events that best represent a concept that has many varying aspects inductive and deductive reasoning from specific to general & from general to specific Adaptation modifying existing schemes to fit new experiences (involves assimilation and accommodation). Piaget. private speech or self-talk children use this to guide their thinking patterns and behaviors. as they get older, this becomes internalized into an inner speech system that focuses their attention, assists with planning and concept formation, and helps them develop self control. Encoding The process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory by developing meaningful relationships and patterns in the data that relate to one's previous knowledge. Sensory Memory or Register According to the Two-Store Model, this is the first phase of memory processing. This part of memory temporarily holds all sensory information. Primary or Working or Short-Term Memory The second level of processing in the Two-Store Model. At this level, the person is consciously perceiving certain aspects of the external world. In adults, this kind of memory holds up to seven, plus or minus two, bits of information (5 in kids). This information must be rehearsed (chunking info into larger chunks of information can make more room for info & organization and clustering info into meaningful groups can help you remember) in order to keep it for more than 20 seconds. Secondary or Long-Term Memory An unlimited cognitive storage system for retaining permanent records of information deemed important. According to the Two-Store Model, this is the third level of processing and the second level of storage. recognition & recall remembering information when the cue for retrieving the information is presented to you & remembering information after being presented with a much less helpful cue post-formal operations Labouvie-Vief thought that this was another form of thought that goes after Piaget's stages of cognitive development. It is characterized by understanding that there is often more than one right answer to a problem (unlike the belief of absolute thinkers). wisdom

insight into the practical problems of life. it is generally thought that you get more of this as you get older, however it comes more from the quality and richness of lived experience than age metacognition knowing and doing methods of learning/remembering efficiently and effectively (what works best and helps for us) Siegler's observations about problem solving 3 year-olds guess, 4-5 year-olds select information they deem to be important and form a rule (to solve the problem) using that information, by age 12 children are good at determining all of the relevant information to the problem and and then forming a rule to apply in solving it selective attention paying attention to specific information while ignoring other distracting stimuli (the latter seems to decline with age) unoccupied/functional/sensorimoter, onlooker play, parallel, associative/adjacent, cooperative, and pretend/imaginary physical and by one's self & receiving enjoyment when watching other people play & two kids playing by themselves but next to each other & playing with each other and using the same toys but not having a common goal & playing with others & acting like someone that they are not and doing things that they are not actually doing (this last one is a type of play not a stage of play) HOME (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment) by Caldwell and Bradley. It assesses the amount of intellectual stimulation in the household (looking at appropriate play materials, parental involvement, etc.) High scores correlate in high IQ scores and vise vera (this is the case for European-American and African-American households but not Mexican- American). Phonemes & Morphemes The smallest unit of sound that affects a word's meaning (there are 53 in English). & The smallest meaningful units in a language. Semantics & Phonetics The study of the meaning behind words. & The study of how sounds are put together to make words. psycholinguistics Study of how language is acquired, produced, and used, and how the sounds and symbols of language are translated into meaning Syntax & Pragmatics The proper arrangement of words in a sentence (aka grammar). & The study of the social aspects of language use. transformational grammar theory by Chomsky. It differentiates between surface structure (way words are organized) and deep structure (what it means). When we hear a sentence we transform the surface structure into the deep structure.

bottom up & top down starting with what is actually present and translating it into meaning & starting with expectations, motives and cues and using them to interperet raw data Semantic Overextension and Overgeneralization when a child uses one word to cover many different concepts and meanings (for example: calling all animals a cat) Fast Mapping Coined in 1978 by Susan Carey and Elsa Bartlett. The process through which new words and concepts are learned after a single exposure (such as during the two-word stage of young children). overregularzation Act of inappropriately applying the grammatical rules for forming plurals & past tenses to irregular nouns & verbs expansions & recasts when a mother repeats a child's verbalization after making it more complex & repeating a child's utterance after correcting grammatical mistakes language development cooing (noises included in every language) and crying → babbling (noises only included in their native language) → holophrases (one-word stage) → two-word stage → telegraphic speech → verb tenses, meaning modifiers, pronouns, etc. added → syntax acquired nativist theory says that children are biologically programmed to learn language (such as Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device which allows children to acquire language naturally during a critical period) empiricist theory says that all aspects of language are learned without any biological programming (Skinner and learning theorists have this view which does not rely on the critical period) bilingualism having some degree of fluency in more than one language (it is called balanced bilingual if you can speak each language equally well) Charles Spearman - intelligence said that cognitive abilities are represented by the g-factor or general intelligence (the s-factors represent specific knowledge needed to answer questions on a particular test) J. P. Guilford - intelligence said that intelligence consists of 150 distinct abilities L. L. Thurstone - intelligence used factor analysis to find seven different primary mental abilities: numerical ability, reasoning, verbal fluency, spacial visualization, perceptual ability, memory, and verbal comprehension

Raymond B. Cattell - intelligence said that cognitive ability consists of - fluid intelligence (reasoning and problem solving) and

• crystallized intelligence (specific knowledge gained by applying fluid intelligence). He also agreed that a g-factor does exist. Robert Sternberg - intelligence The triarchic theory which says intelligence consists of three components: - processing/analytic components (strategies to solve problems), - contextual/practical components (applying intelligence to everyday problems), and - experimental/creative components (intelligence is modified by experiences, etc.) Howard Gardner - intelligence multiple intelligences which has seven components of intelligence which not everyone has equally. The intelligence are linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spacial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. intelligence quotient (IQ) mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100 (to eliminate the decimal point) mental age (MA) a chronological age that corresponds to a given level of performance on an intelligence test (comparable to test takers of the same age) Alfred Binet was the first to develop an intelligence test. IQ scores http://www.iqtestforfree.net/images/iq_bell_curve.gif mentally defective → borderline range → below average → average (100) → above average → superior → very superior standard deviation of 15 points Stanford-Binet, WAIS-R, WPPSI-R, WISC-III intelligence tests (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Revised, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence - Revised [for children 4-6 years old], Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - third edition [for children 6-16 years old]) Bayley Scales of Infant Intelligence A standardized measure of infant's mental, motor, and behavioral development. (for 2-30 month old babies. the score is a DQ or developmental quotient but does not predict a future IQ score) terminal drop a rapid decline in intellectual performance shortly before a person's death emotional intelligence (EQ)

by Goleman. The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions/handle emotional situations. (self awareness, self management, social awareness, and relationship management) He thought that this was a better predictor of success than a person's IQ. creativity the ability to produce something new and unique that combines elements in new ways (somewhat correlated to intelligence but not really) divergent thinking the ability to present many different ideas, answers, or solution strategies to solve a problem (important in creativity, but this is not always used to be creative) convergent thinking one correct answer is expected social cognition reasoning about social situations and social relationships theory of mind

• understanding that people have mental states (like motives/perspectives) that guides their behavior.
• joint attention (when a child and caregiver pay attention to the same thing at the same time) is seen in children beginning at 9 months old.
• the false belief task (having a person hide a marble under a basket then leave the room, then the researcher moves the object while the child can see them, and then the child is asked where they think the person will look for the marble) showed us that children can understand this at age four, but autistic children got the task wrong and thus have mind blindness. self-recognition and the mirror test of self-recognition understanding that you are separate from other people (self-concept) and placing a child in front of a mirror after secretly putting something on their cheek (successfully, they will recognize themself and rub the stuff off of their cheek). young children describe themselves in terms of appearance and outward characteristics, but older children will describe themselves in terms of their personality and then in relation to their peers Gender Roles The set of social and behavioral norms for each gender held by society. One's self-perception of his or her gender (which is often heavily shaped by society). androgyny a combination of the best feminine and masculine traits gender stability & gender consistency the understanding that biological gender stays the same throughout life & the understanding that biological gender is not changed by changes in appearance (like a boy dressing up as a girl) Kohlberg's theory of moral development

It consists of three levels each divided into two stages (making six total stages). He believed that you went through stages one at a time and could not skip them. It is based on Piaget's cognitive development. Preconventional by Kohlberg. The first level of Moral Reasoning guided by rewards and punishments. This level is further divided into: stage 1 - (ages 7-10) adherence to rules to please authority figures/punishment oriented & stage 2 - follow rules that satisfy yourself/reward orientated. Conventional by Kohlberg. The second level of Moral Reasoning guided by strict adherence to rules. Divided into two stages: stage 3 - conformity to group expectations/good-girl, good-boy orientation & stage 4 - (teenagers) following rules because they promote social order/authority orientation. Postconventional by Kohlberg. The third level of Moral Reasoning guided by adherence to overarching moral principles. Divided into two stages: stage 5 - (he believed that only 20% of adolescents reach this stage) realization that they are part of a large society where everyone deserves rights, and morals are relative rather than absolute/social contract orientation & stage 6 - (he believed that only few people attain this level) obeying universal moral laws and principles that span across all cultures/morality of individual principles orientation. morality of care and morality of justice Gilligan's model of moral development said that men and women differ in how they view and interpret moral decision making. women show the first term which is an interpersonal perspective emphasizing caring, compassion, and relationships & men show the second term which is general principles (such as justice, dignity and equality) and competitive imprinting by Lorenz. ducklings following their mother after birth (it involved a critical period). Ethologists thought that this was an analogy to infant's attachment to their caregiver. Harry Harlow conducted attachment studies with infant monkeys. the monkeys preferred a cloth mother to a wire mother even though the wire mother provided them with food (the cloth mother provided comfort/warmth). Ainsworth Strange Situation measures the quality of the attachment relationship. This method involves observing a child's reactions when his/her caregiver leaves the room and when the caregiver returns. (separation anxiety = becoming distressed when parent leaves the room)

• Secure Attachment = parent is a secure base to explore from, sad when they leave and happy when they come back

• Insecure Attachment Anxious-Ambivalent = often refuse to leave their parent, are very upset when they leave and often angry when they come back Aviodant = seek little contact with their parent, don't care when they leave and avoid them when they come back Disorganized-Disoriented = go back and forth between approaching and avoiding parent, and are often confused whether to seek or avoid them (this often appears in abused children) interpersonal attraction factors that contribute to a relationship being formed similarity, proximity/propinquity, and (physical) attractiveness the main factors that describe the people who we are most likely to become friends with (as well as those who we fall in love with) passionate/romantic love & compassionate/affectionate love what is typically thought of as being "in love" (madly in love for the first while of a romantic relationship) & when we have a deep caring affection for a person Sternberg's triangular theory of love
• intimacy (the feeling of closeness and connectedness)
• passion (the physical and marital attraction)
• decision/commitment (the initial cognition that one loves someone and the longer-term feeling of commitment to maintain the love) ~ complete/consummate love only happens when all three are present, - fatuous love is passion and commitment (often short-lived) hostile, instrumental, and relational aggression intentionally inflicting physical or psychological harm on others, doing it to achieve a goal (but not intended to harm), and using it to damage other people's social relationships frustration-aggression hypothesis aggression (behavior that is intended to hurt others which is generally more common in men) is always the product of frustration and frustration always leads to aggression (this hypothesis has been proven wrong). Aggression is either aimed at the provoker or someone else (the latter is called scapegoating). altruism or prosocial behavior behavior aimed at unselfishly helping others. the empathy-arousal hypothesis says that empathy (which is an emotional experience of grasping another person's feelings) has the power to motivate this trait/action resilient child & failure to thrive one that bounces back from a difficult situation like abuse or genetic defects, etc. these children have at least one person in their life that loves them unconditionally (which is to be loved as a person not for what you do, love is not only given as a reward and withdrawn as a punishment: it is

constant) & infants who are neglected or abused may develop this syndrome, they become very underweight and depressed family systems theory A perspective on family functioning that emphasizes interconnections among different family relationships (such as marital, parent-child, sibling) dyadic = two people in relationship to each other (mother-father, parent-child, brother-sister, etc.) polyadic = more than two people in relation to each other beanpole family & blended/reconstituted family & latchkey children when multiple generations of a family live in the same household & a family structure that is the result of remarriage & children who come home to an empty house after school (because their parents work) launching phase (aka the empty nest stage) when young adult children leave the home. this was described as a period of crisis, particularly for mothers, but more recent surveys have shown that most parents enjoy a renewal in their relationship at this time of being alone authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful/uninvolved parents by Baumrind. loving, set limits, allow children to express their point of view; children end up self-reliant, competent, and socially responsible & demand unquestioning obedience, use punishment to control; children end up unhappy, distrustful, ineffective in social interactions, and often dependent adults & make few demands, allow children to make decisions, use inconsistent discipline; children end up immature, lack self-control, and explore less & do not pay attention to child's needs, provide no discipline or guidance or love; children end up at risk for antisocial behavior middle generation sandwich Adult children who are caring for their parents as well as their own kids. Elisabeth Kubler-Ross's psychological model of dying the stages: denial, anger, bargaining (trying to delay the inevitable), depression, acceptance (they put their affairs in order) bereavement grief (which is the distressful responding to the death of a loved one). some say that people doing this also go through the same stages Kubler-Ross proposed for dying. anticipatory grief starts before the loved one's death (often when they learn that they have a terminal illness). living will A legal document that indicates what medical intervention an individual wants if he or she becomes incapable of expressing those wishes (such as near their death). euthanasia An intentional action or lack of action causing the merciful death of someone suffering from a terminal illness or incurable condition

hospice A program that assists a dying patient and her or his family. The service may be provided in the patient's home, or in an institution. temperament a child's characteristic mood and activity level easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up, and average infants (by the New York Longitudinal Study of 1956 by Chase, Thomas, and Birch regarding temperament) 40%, adaptable to new situations, predictable rhythm or schedule, positive mood & 10%, intense reactions, not very adaptable to new situations, irregular body rhythms, slightly negative mood & 15%, initially withdrawn when approached, but may later "warm up", slow to adapt to new situations & 35%, do not fit into any of the other categories preconscious awreness by Freud. just below the surface of awareness but can easily be retrieved (things we are not currently thinking about but could start thinking about at any time) defense mechanisms by Frued. unconscious methods used by the ego to distort reality and thus protect us from anxiety fixation a desire to build one's life around getting certain needs met (based on one of Freud's psychosexual stages, such as obsessive eating due to the oral stage) perceived self-efficacy & self-esteem what a person thinks they are capable and incapable of doing. this is not necessarily the same as they are really capable of doing & the perception of one's worth Moratorium by Marcia. based on Erikson's identity stage. A level of identity status where the adolescent is actively trying out different beliefs, behaviors, and lifestyles to discover his or her identity, but has not made any definite commitments. (this also applies to what adolescents are going through in this stage in general) Identity Diffusion by Marcia. based on Erikson's identity stage. A level of identity status where one has no idea who he or she is, and has not made any significant effort to find out. Foreclosure by Marcia. based on Erikson's identity stage. A level of identity status where one has created his or her identity based on the opinions of others (mainly parents), not on personal choice. Identity Achievement by Marcia. based on Erikson's identity stage. A level of identity status where the adolescent has finally created his or her own personal identity. activity theory & disengagement theory

adults who remain active and connected with other people are more satisfied & satisfied older adults have a natural tendency to become less engaged in society and to focus inward (based on Erikson's integrity vs. despair stage) fundamental attribution error observers tend to attribute others' behavior to dispositions but people (the "actor") attribute their own behavior to the situation (because they know how their own behavior changes from one situation to another) internal locus of control by Weiner. when people consistently attribute their sucess and failure to their ability and effort external locus of control by Weiner. when people consistently attribute their sucess and failure to the difficulty of the task and luck Learned Helplessness by Seligman (he studied on animals in a cage which later had an exit). people with this condition have learned that their efforts are all in vain and have given up trying to study, etc. by themselves classical conditioning vs. operant conditioning

• the first is learning reflexes to neutral stimuli and - the second is learning to make voluntary actions based on learned rewards fixed ratio (FR), variable ratio (VR), fixed interval (FI), variable interval (VI) every Xth time, on average every Xth time/the X varies (this shows the greatest durability and resistance to extinction), available to be given X amount of time after the last one was given, available to be given on average X amount of time after the last one was given/the X varies. Skinner box A cage designed for animals in operant conditioning experiments. whole language approach An approach to reading instruction that places more emphasis on the meaning/whole of written language than on its structure Phonics Approach An (code emphasis) approach to teaching reading which attempts to enhance children's phonemic awareness, or ability to discriminate between different phonemes. This method teaches students the relationships between written words and their different phonemes. learning styles visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), and kinesthetic (hands-on) by Fleming. time-out removing the student from the class setting but keeping them in the room (able or unable to see what is happening) or moving the student to a low stimulus (but safely monitored) setting.

Doing this for a certain period of time as negative punishment because the attention from the other students is reinforcing the wrong behavior. mastery orientation (an achievement motivaion orientation) accomplishment is attributed to their own abilities and efforts. these people seek challenges rather than avoid them Project Head Start A government-funded program that is designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for school success. (at first it didn't have lasting effects, but now they teach the mothers to be teachers) Huntington's disease & Tay-Sachs disease (diseases that can be passed down to the offspring through the parents' genes) a dominant gene from chromosome four that causes fatal nervous system deterioration & two recessive genes which cause the nervous system to fatally deteriorate phenylketonuria (PKU) (a disease that can be passed down to the offspring through the parents' genes) a pair of recessive genes which causes the metabolism to not be able to digest phenylalanine (if they eat this it will build up and make them mentally retarded and hyperactive) sickle cell anemia (a disease that can be passed down to the offspring through the parents' genes) two recessive genes which makes your red blood cells abnormally shaped and unable to carry as much oxygen (you have trouble breathing when you exert yourself and often they will die of kidney failure by adolescence). common in African-Americans cystic fibers (a disease that can be passed down to the offspring through the parents' genes) two recessive genes which cause build up of mucous in your lungs which is eventually fatal Down's syndrome causes mental retardation, distinctive facial features, and stubby limbs due to an extra chromosome at the 21st level Klinefelter syndrome & Turner syndrome males who have inherited an additional X chromosome (XXY), these people cannot reproduce and don't have normal secondary gender characteristics & females who have only inherited one X chromosome (XO), these people cannot reproduce and don't have normal secondary gender characteristics preterm infants low birth weight (aka small-for-date babies). this can be caused by the mother smoking while pregnant, etc. teratogens

An agent, such as a virus, a drug, or radiation, that causes malformation of an embryo or fetus. pregnant women who use narcotics run the risk of having addicted babies who experience withdrawal symptoms at birth which can be fatal. sudden infant death syndrome & fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) the sudden, unexpected death of an infant, typically occurring during sleep & large amounts of alcohol consumed during pregnancy causes mental retardation, distinctive facial abnormalities, and abnormal head size thalidomide marketed in the 1950s as a drug that controlled nausea and was taken by many pregnant women, this drug caused many birth defects Gifted Children A group of children who are outstandingly intelligent (i.e. an IQ of 130 or greater) dyslexia some people who have this have trouble discriminating speech sounds and others have trouble distinguishing between letters that are similar in appearance. phonics-based intervention programs try to help them with this in order to get better at reading. Rubella (aka German measles) a disease that can pass through the membrane and to the baby and causes birth defects in 60-80% of babies if they are infected within the first eight weeks of development. defects include vision and hearing loss, heart defects, cerebral palsy, and mental retardation. Syphilis a disease that can be passed from the mother to the developing baby that can lead to miscarriage or birth defects (this is more damaging if it is gotten during the middle and late stages of pregnancy) AIDS (genital herpes) a disease that can be passed from the mother to the developing baby or through breastfeeding. cesarean (c-section aka surgery) delivery is often used instead of vaginal (natural) delivery to avoid the child getting this infection (if they are at risk of getting it). Rh factor some people have this (+) in their blood and other people do not (-). this used to be a problem for mothers who with - who where bearing children with + (the mother's body would attack it in the baby's blood and this would cause mental retardation) anoxia & cerebral palsy the baby not getting enough oxygen during birth due to a twisted umbilical cord & if the formerly explained condition occurs for an extended period, they may develop this which is a neurological disorder that is characterized by a lack of muscle control and coordination mentally retarded

• IQ score below 70 (two standard deviations below the mean)
• evident significant deficits in social competence or independent behavior that is expected for their age
• onset prior to age 18 organic retardation is caused by genetic/biological factors & cultural-familial retardation is not caused by biological factors, however it is often found in those with low SES mild, moderate, severe & profound metal retardation the former classifications for these children based on their IQ test score (50-69, 35-49, 34-20, less than

behavior modification (operant conditioning techniques) these techniques have been used successfully to teach severe or profoundly retarded children ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder) inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity (three times as many boys have this than girls do)

• predominately hyperactive-impulsive type
• predominately inattentive type
• combined type (shows all three traits) autism spectrum disorders (or pervasive developmental disorders) It involves varying degrees of difficulty with communication, social interactions and repetitive stereotypical behaviors. antisocail behavior aggression, delinquency, criminal behavior, etc. (sometimes caused by misjudging another person's motives as them trying to hurt you) anorexia nervosa people who are considered this want to be skinny/beautiful and are "obsessed" with food but avoid eating it (refusing to maintain at least 85% of your expected body weight, fear of gaining weight, and a distorted body image) bulimia nervosa people who are considered this want to be skinny/beautiful and binge then purge (eat a lot then get rid of it without allowing it to digest) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DMS) Generalized anxiety disorder feeling persistent anxiety, but unaware of its source free-floating anxiety may be accompanied by physical symptoms