Developmental Psychology: Theories, Concepts, and Applications, Exams of Nursing

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Some dimensions expand and others shrink Correct Answer: MULTIDIRECTIONAL Has biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions Correct Answer: MULTIDIMENSIONAL The capacity for change Correct Answer: plasticity Early adulthood is not the endpoint of development; no age period dominates development Correct Answer: lifelong Various areas of study have an interest in the field of development through the life span Correct Answer: MULTIDISCIPLINARY All development occurs within a context, or setting (social, cultural, and historic factors) Correct Answer: CONTEXTUAL Nature Correct Answer: refers to an organism's biological inheritance EXAMPLE OF NATURE Correct Answer: sunflower grows in an orderly way Nurture Correct Answer: environmental experiences EXAMPLE OF NURTURE Correct Answer: sunflower is smashed by unfriendly environment Continuity Correct Answer: involves gradual, cumulative change EXAMPLE OF CONTINUITY Correct Answer: seed to tree Discontinuity Correct Answer: distinct stages EXAMPLE OF DISCONTINUITY Correct Answer: a child's first word Stability Correct Answer: We become older renditions of our early experience EXAMPLE OF STABILITY Correct Answer: many older adults continue to be good at practicing what they have learned earlier in life EXAPLE OF CHANGE Correct Answer: older adults often show less capacity for learning new things than younger adults do CHANGE Correct Answer: we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development Freud Psychoanalytic and Psychosocial Theories Correct Answer: psychosexual development: oral (birth to 1.5 years), anal (1.5 to 3 years), phallic (3-6 years), latency (6 to puberty), and genital (puberty onward)

Erikson Psychoanalytic and Psychosocial Theories Correct Answer: Includes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. Piaget COGNITIVE THEORIES Correct Answer: Theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development. Vygotsky COGNITIVE THEORIES Correct Answer: A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. Information processing COGNITIVE THEORIES Correct Answer: Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking. Operant conditioning Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory Correct Answer: B. F. Skinner: A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur Bandura's social cognitive model Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory Correct Answer: The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. Ecological theory Correct Answer: Bronfenbrenner's environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem Ethology Correct Answer: Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. How does Erikson's theory differ from that of Freud? Correct Answer: Erik Erikson believed that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. For one thing, Erikson said we develop in psychosocial stages, rather than in psychosexual stages. According to Freud, the primary motivation for human behavior is sexual in nature; according to Erikson, it is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people. According to Freud, our basic personality is shaped during the first five years of life; according to Erikson, developmental change occurs throughout the life span. Thus, in terms of the early-versus-later-experience issue described earlier in the chapter, Freud viewed early experience as being far more important than later experiences, whereas Erikson emphasized the importance of both early and later experiences. Erikson's theory Correct Answer: Trust versus mistrust Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt

Industry versus inferiority identity versus identity confusion Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation Integrity versus despair STAGE ONE Erikson's theory Trust versus mistrust Correct Answer: experienced in the first year of life STAGE TWO Erikson's theory Autonomy versus shame and doubt Correct Answer: late infancy and toddlerhood (1 to 3 years) STAGE THREE Erikson's theory Initiative versus guilt Correct Answer: occurs during the preschool years STAGE FOUR Erikson's theory Industry versus inferiority Correct Answer: during the elementary school years STAGE FIVE Erikson's theory identity versus identity confusion Correct Answer: the adolescent years STAGE SIX Erikson's theory Intimacy versus isolation Correct Answer: During early adulthood STAGE SEVEN Erikson's theory Generativity versus stagnation Correct Answer: middle adulthood STAGE EIGHT Erikson's theory Integrity versus despair Correct Answer: in late adulthood PIAGETS THEORY Correct Answer: sensorimotor stage preoperational stage concrete operational stage formal operational stage sensorimotor stage birth to about 2 years of age Correct Answer: infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions preoperational stage 2 to 7 years of age Correct Answer: children begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory information with physical action and represent the world with words, images, and drawings concrete operational stage

7 to 11 years of age Correct Answer: children can perform operations that involve objects, and they can reason logically when the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples formal operational stage between the ages of 11 and 15 and continues through adulthood, Correct Answer: individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think in abstract and more logical terms. As part of thinking more abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances. They might think about what an ideal parent would be like and compare their parents to this ideal standard. They begin to entertain possibilities for the future and are fascinated with what they can be. In solving problems, they become more systematic, developing hypotheses about why something is happening the way it is and then testing these hypotheses. Descriptive Correct Answer: Studies designed to observe and record behavior. WHEN TO USE DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Correct Answer: a researcher might observe the extent to which people are altruistic or aggressive toward each other. By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important information about people's behavior Correlational Correct Answer: Research that attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. WHEN TO USE CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Correct Answer: For example, to find out whether children of permissive parents have less self-control than other children, you would need to carefully record observations of parents' permissiveness and their children's self-control. You would then analyze these data statistically to yield a numerical measure called a correlation coefficient, which is a number based on a statistical analysis that describes the degree of association between two variables. The correlation coefficient ranges from - 1.00 to +1.00. A negative number means an inverse relation. In this example, you might find an inverse correlation between permissive parenting and children's self-control with a coefficient of, say, - .30. By contrast, you might find a positive correlation of +.30 between parental monitoring of children and children's self-control. Experimental Correct Answer: A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant. WHEN TO USE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Correct Answer: Imagine that you decide to conduct an experimental study of the effects of meditation by pregnant women on their newborns' breathing and sleeping patterns. You would randomly assign pregnant women to experimental and control groups. The experimental-group women would engage in meditation over a specified number of sessions and weeks. The control group would not. Then, when the infants are born, you would assess their breathing and sleeping patterns. If the breathing and sleeping patterns of newborns whose mothers were in the experimental group are more positive than those of the control group, you would conclude that meditation caused the positive effects. Case Study Correct Answer: An in-depth look at a single individual. WHEN TO USE A CASE STUDY Correct Answer: Case studies are performed mainly by mental health professionals when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects of an individual's life cannot be duplicated and tested in other individuals. A case study provides information about one

person's experiences; it may focus on nearly any aspect of the subject's life that helps the researcher understand the person's mind, behavior, or other attributes Cross-sectional Correct Answer: A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time. WHEN TO USE CROSS SECTIONAL RESEARCH Correct Answer: A typical cross-sectional study might include three groups of children: 5-year-olds, 8-year-olds, and 11-year-olds. Another study might include groups of 15-year-olds, 25-year-olds, and 45-year-olds. The groups can be compared with respect to a variety of dependent variables: IQ, memory, peer relations, attachment to parents, hormonal changes, and so on. Longitudinal Correct Answer: A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. WHEN TO USE LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH Correct Answer: For example, in a longitudinal study of life satisfaction, the same adults might be assessed periodically over a 70-year time span—at the ages of 20, 35, 45, 65, and 90, for example. Dominant Correct Answer: One gene of a pair always exerts its effects; it is dominant, overriding the potential influence of the other gene, called the recessive gene. Recessive: Correct Answer: A recessive gene exerts its influence only if the two genes of a pair are both recessive. If you inherit a recessive gene for a trait from each of your parents, you will show the trait. If you inherit a recessive gene from only one parent, you may never know you carry the gene. Genotype Correct Answer: All of a person's genetic material makes up his or her genotype. A person's genetic heritage; the actual genetic material. Phenotype Correct Answer: A phenotype consists of observable characteristics. Phenotypes include physical characteristics (such as height, weight, and hair color) and psychological characteristics (such as personality and intelligence).The way an individual's genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics. Down Syndrome chromosomal abnormalities Correct Answer: A form of intellectual disability that is caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21.

2. Klinefelter syndrome chromosomal abnormalities Correct Answer: - A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY.
3. Fragile X syndrome- chromosomal abnormalities Correct Answer: A genetic disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosterm-59ome, which becomes constricted and often breaks. . Turner syndrome- chromosomal abnormalities Correct Answer: A chromosome disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or the second X chromosome is partially deleted.

5. The XYY syndrome- chromosomal abnormalities Correct Answer: A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome. phenylketonuria (PKU) Correct Answer: A genetic disorder in which an individual cannot properly metabolize an amino acid called phenylalanine. PKU is now easily detected but, if left untreated, results in intellectual disability and hyperactivity. sickle-cell anemia Correct Answer: A genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells and occurs most often in people of African descent. cystic fibrosis Correct Answer: A genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells and occurs most often in people of African descent. behavioral genetics Correct Answer: Seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development How do the findings of adoption studies and twin studies help us to understand the role of heredity and environment? Correct Answer: A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins. A study in which investigators seek to discover whether, in behavior and psychological characteristics, adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who provided a home environment, or more like their biological parents, who contributed their heredity. Another form of the adoption study compares adoptive and biological siblings. Passive Correct Answer: Correlations that exist when the natural parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child. Evocative Correct Answer: Correlations that exist when the child's genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments. Active (niche-picking) Correct Answer: Correlations that exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating. The Fetal Period Correct Answer: lasting about seven months, is the prenatal period between two months after conception and birth Lasting about seven months, is the prenatal period between two months after conception and birth in typical pregnancies. Growth and development continue their dramatic course during this time. The Embryonic Period Correct Answer: two to eight weeks after conception is the period of prenatal development that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for cells form, and organs appear. The Germinal Period Correct Answer: in the first two weeks after conception

period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception. It includes the creation of the fertilized egg, called a zygote, cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. Teratogen Correct Answer: From the Greek word tera, meaning "monster." Any agent that causes a birth defect. The field of study that investigates the causes of birth defects is called teratology. Why do some infants exhibit effects of exposure to a teratogen while others do not? Correct Answer:

1. DOSE
2. GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
3. TIME OF EXPOSURE Alcohol EFFECTS ON DEVELOPING FETUS Correct Answer: Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) A cluster of abnormalities that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. Most children with FASD have learning problems and many are below average in intelligence, with some having an intellectual disability Cocaine EFFECTS ON DEVELOPING FETUS Correct Answer: The most consistent finding is that cocaine exposure during prenatal development is associated with reduced birth weight, length, and head circumference. Prenatal cocaine exposure has been linked to lower arousal, less effective self- regulation, higher excitability, and lower quality of reflexes at 1 month of age, to impaired motor development at 2 years of age and a slower rate of growth through 10 years of age, to deficits in behavioral self-regulation, to elevated blood pressure at 9 years of age, to impaired language development and information processing including attention deficits (especially impulsivity)to learning disabilities at age 7 to increased likelihood of being in a special education program that involves support services and to increased behavioral problems, especially externalizing problems such as high rates of aggression and delinquency. Proximodistal pattern of growth: Correct Answer: Developmental sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities. Cephalocaudal pattern of growth: Correct Answer: Developmental sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top—the head—with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom reflexes Correct Answer: Built-in reactions to stimuli that govern the newborn's movements, which are automatic and beyond the newborn's control. rooting reflex Correct Answer: A newborn's built-in reaction that occurs when the infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched. In response, the infant turns his or her head toward the side that was touched, in an apparent effort to find something to suck. sucking reflex Correct Answer: A newborn's built-in reaction to automatically suck an object placed in its mouth. The sucking reflex enables the infant to get nourishment before he or she has associated a nipple with food and also serves as a self-soothing or self-regulating mechanism. grasping reflex Correct Answer: A neonatal reflex that occurs when something touches the infant's palms. The infant responds by grasping tightly.

Moro reflex Correct Answer: A neonatal startle response that occurs in reaction to a sudden, intense noise or movement. When startled, the newborn arches its back, throws its head back, and flings out its arms and legs. Then the newborn rapidly pulls its arms and legs close to the center of the body. Identify 2 examples of reflexes that disappear several months after birth: Correct Answer: Example 1: The rooting reflexes tend to disappear when the infant is 3 to 4 months old Example 2: The Moro reflexes, for example, tend to disappear when the infant is 3 to 4 months old Identify 2 examples of reflexes that persist throughout life: Correct Answer: Example 1: coughing, sneezing Example 2: blinking, shivering, and yawning What is the main idea of the dynamic systems view of development? Correct Answer: The perspective on motor development that seeks to explain how motor behaviors are assembled for perceiving and acting. To develop motor skills, infants must perceive something in their environment that motivates them to act and use their perceptions to fine-tune their movements. Motor skills represent solutions to the infant's goals 3 months GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Correct Answer: roll over prone, chest up, use arms for support 6 months GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Correct Answer: support some weight with legs sit and stand with support pull themselves up to stand 9 months GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Correct Answer: walk using furniture 12 months GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Correct Answer: Stand alone walk alone 3 months FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Correct Answer: interested in objects around them 6 months FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Correct Answer: left objects on the floor, puts objects in mouth 9 months FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Correct Answer: pincer grip (grasping objects with pointer finger and thumb) How are sensation and perception related? Correct Answer: sensation The product of the interaction between information and the sensory receptors—the eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin. perception The interpretation of what is sensed.

What do infants prefer to look at? Correct Answer: Infants show an interest in human faces soon after birth. Research shows that within hours after infants are born, they prefer to look at faces rather than other objects and to look at attractive faces more than at unattractive ones. Infants 2 to 3 weeks old preferred to look at some stimuli more than others. In Fantz' experiment, infants preferred to look at patterns rather than at color or brightness. For example, they looked longer at a face, a piece of printed matter, or a bull's-eye than at red, yellow, or white discs. What do infants prefer to hear? Correct Answer: Infants can hear in the womb, and prefer to hear familiar sounds, such as a book read to them in the womb, or their mother's voice. Fetal HR increases when hearing mom. Schemes: Correct Answer: In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. Accommodation: Correct Answer: Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences. Assimilation: Correct Answer: Piagetian concept of using existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences. Object permanence: Correct Answer: The Piagetian term for understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched. According to Piaget, from birth to age 24 months, infants are in the ______ stage of development. Correct Answer: sensorimotor Communicative Behavior (Chronological Order) Correct Answer: crying cooing babbling gestures spoken words crying STAGE ONE Correct Answer: BIRTH COOING STAGE TWO Correct Answer: 2-4 MONTHS BABBLING STAGE 3 Correct Answer: 6 MONTHS GESTURES STAGE FOUR Correct Answer: 7-15 MONTHS, MEAN AGE OF 11-12 MONTHS SPOKEN WORDS STAGE 5 Correct Answer: infants understand about 50 words at about 13 months, but they can't say this many words until about 18 months What is the difference between a "universal linguist" and a "language specific listener"? Correct Answer: In Patricia Kuhl's research laboratory babies listen to tape-recorded voices that repeat syllables. When the sounds of the syllables change, the babies quickly learn to look at the bear. Using this technique, Kuhl has demonstrated that babies are universal linguists until about 6 months of age, but in their next six months they become language-specific listeners. Among the milestones in infant language development are crying (birth), cooing (1 to 2 months), babbling (6 months), making

the transition from universal linguist to language-specific listener (6 to 12 months), using gestures ( to 12 months), comprehending words (8 to 12 months), speaking one's first word (13 months), undergoing a vocabulary spurt (19 months), rapidly expanding one's understanding of words (18 to 24 months), and producing two-word utterances (18 to 24 months). Temperament: Correct Answer: Involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding. What factors influence infant temperament? Correct Answer: refers to individual differences in how quickly the emotion is shown, how strong it is, how long it lasts, and how quickly it fades away. What are typical infant behaviors that illustrate the "trust versus mistrust" stage of Erikson's theory? Correct Answer: Erikson proposed that infants learn trust when they are cared for in a consistent, warm manner. If the infant is not well fed and kept warm on a consistent basis, a sense of mistrust is likely to develop. What are typical infant behaviors that illustrate the "autonomy versus shame/doubt" stage of Erikson's theory? Correct Answer: Autonomy builds as the infant's mental and motor abilities develop. At this point in development, not only can infants walk, but they can also climb, open and close, drop, push and pull, and hold and let go. Infants feel pride in these new accomplishments and want to do everything themselves, whether the activity is flushing a toilet, pulling the wrapping off a package, or deciding what to eat. It is important for parents to recognize the motivation of toddlers to do what they are capable of doing at their own pace. Then they can learn to control their muscles and their impulses themselves. But when caregivers are impatient and do for toddlers what they are capable of doing themselves, shame and doubt develop. Every parent has rushed a child from time to time. It is only when parents consistently overprotect toddlers or criticize accidents (wetting, soiling, spilling, or breaking, for example) that children develop an excessive sense of shame and doubt about their ability to control themselves and their world. Secure Correct Answer: use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. When they are in the presence of their caregiver, securely attached infants explore the room and examine toys that have been placed in it. When the caregiver departs, securely attached infants might protest mildly, and when the caregiver returns these infants re-establish positive interaction with her, perhaps by smiling or climbing onto her lap. Subsequently, they often resume playing with the toys in the room. Insecure-avoidant Correct Answer: show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver. In the Strange Situation, these babies engage in little interaction with the caregiver, are not distressed when she leaves the room, usually do not re-establish contact when she returns, and may even turn their back on her. If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away. Insecure-resistant Correct Answer: often cling to the caregiver and then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away. In the Strange Situation, these babies often cling anxiously to the caregiver and don't explore the playroom. When the caregiver leaves, they often cry loudly and then push away if she tries to comfort them on her return. Insecure-disorganized Correct Answer: appear disoriented. In the Strange Situation, these babies might seem dazed, confused, and fearful. To be classified as disorganized, babies must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specified behaviors, such as extreme fearfulness around the caregiver.

What role does culture play in infant-caregiver attachment? Correct Answer: The avoidant pattern in German babies likely occurs because their caregivers encourage them to be independent Japanese babies are more likely than American babies to be categorized as resistant. Japanese mothers rarely let anyone unfamiliar with their babies care for them. Thus, the Strange Situation might create considerably more stress for Japanese infants than for American infants, who are more accustomed to separation from their mothers What are the similarities and differences in physical changes and growth rates in infancy versus early childhood? Correct Answer: The average child grows 2½ inches in height and gains between 5 and 7 pounds a year during early childhood. An infant's growth in the first year is rapid and follows cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns. Improvement in fine motor skills—such as being able to turn the pages of a book one at a time—also contributes to the infant's sense of mastery in the second year. The growth rate continues to slow down in early childhood. If it did not, we would be a species of giants. Sleep recommendations DURING CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT Correct Answer: 11 to 13 hours Nutrition Correct Answer: A sensitive/responsive caregiver feeding style, in which the caregiver is nurturant, provides clear information about what is expected, and appropriately responds to children's cues, is recommended Snack foods should be low in fat, in simple sugars, and in salt, as well as high in fiber. Exercise Correct Answer: dDaily occurrence engage in two hours of physical activity per day, consisting of one hour of structured activity and one hour of unstructured free play Conservation Correct Answer: The awareness that altering an object's or a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties Egocentrism Correct Answer: The inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective centration Correct Answer: A centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others Animism Correct Answer: The belief that inanimate objects term-125have lifelike qualities and are capable of action Scaffolding Correct Answer: is defined as changing the level of support. The phrase _______ is defined as awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others. Correct Answer: "theory of mind" In Piaget's preoperational period, what are some behaviors that would demonstrate that the child is in the symbolic function substage? Correct Answer: During this substage, the young child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present. Young children use scribble designs to represent people, houses, cars, clouds, and so on; they begin to use language and engage in pretend play. However, although young children make distinct progress during this substage, their thought still has important limitations, two of which are egocentrism and animism.

What are some behaviors that would demonstrate the child is in the intuitive thought substage? Correct Answer: In this substage, children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions. Although he is starting to develop his own ideas about the world he lives in, his ideas are still simple, and he is not very good at thinking things out. He has difficulty understanding events that he knows are taking place but that he cannot see. His fantasized thoughts bear little resemblance to reality. He cannot yet answer the question "What if?" in any reliable way. For example, he has only a vague idea of what would happen if a car were to hit him. He also has difficulty negotiating traffic because he cannot do the mental calculations necessary to estimate whether an approaching car will hit him when he crosses the road. What impact does early (preschool) education have for children? Correct Answer: They emphasize that quality preschools prepare children for school readiness and academic success. quality preschool programs decrease the likelihood that once children go to elementary and secondary school they will be retained in a grade or drop out of school. They also point to analyses indicating that universal preschool would bring cost savings on the order of billions of dollars because of a diminished need for remedial and justice services During early childhood, children use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen. Erikson referred to this as __________ ; failure to do so may result in experiencing guilt. Correct Answer: During early childhood, children use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen. Erikson referred to this as initiative; failure to do so may result in experiencing guilt. Evolutionary view Correct Answer: According to evolutionary psychology, adaptation during human evolution produced psychological differences between males and females Because of their differing roles in reproduction, males and females faced differing pressures when the human species was evolving. In particular, because having multiple sexual liaisons improves the likelihood that males will pass on their genes, natural selection favored males who adopted short- term mating strategies. These are strategies that allow a male to win the competition with other males for sexual access to females. Therefore, say evolutionary psychologists, males evolved dispositions that favor violence, competition, and risk taking. Social role theory Correct Answer: states that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men Psychoanalytic theory Correct Answer: preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite- sex parent. Social cognitive theory Correct Answer: children's gender development occurs through observing and imitating what other people say and do, and through being rewarded and punished for gender- appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior Authoritative Correct Answer: encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions Authoritarian Correct Answer: a restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and respect their work and effort. Indulgent Correct Answer: style in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them.

Neglectful Correct Answer: style in which the parent is uninvolved in the child's life. Physical abuse: Correct Answer: is characterized by the infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child. The parent or other person may not have intended to hurt the child; the injury may have resulted from excessive physical punishment Child neglect: Correct Answer: is characterized by failure to provide for the child's basic needs. Neglect can be physical (abandonment, for example), educational (allowing chronic truancy, for example), or emotional (marked inattention to the child's needs, for example). Child neglect is by far the most common form of child maltreatment. In every country where relevant data have been collected, neglect occurs up to three times as often as abuse. Sexual abuse: Correct Answer: includes fondling a child's genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials. Emotional abuse: Correct Answer: includes acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems What type of maltreatment is most common? Correct Answer: NEGLECT What is the role of play in early childhood? Correct Answer: play helps children master anxieties and conflicts. Because tensions are relieved in play, children can cope with life's problems. Play permits children to work off excess physical energy and to release pent-up tensions. Therapists use play therapy both to allow children to work off frustrations and to analyze children's conflicts and ways of coping with them. Children may feel less threatened and be more likely to express their true feelings in the context of play. Play also is an important context for cognitive development. Sensorimotor Correct Answer: Behavior engaged in by infants that lets them derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas. Practice Correct Answer: Play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports. Pretense/Symbolic Correct Answer: Play in which the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol. Social Correct Answer: involves interaction with peers Infancy Correct Answer: 18 to 22 inches long between 5 and 10 pounds. Early/Middle Childhood Correct Answer: The average girl is 4 feet, 10 inches tall, and the average boy is 4 feet, 9 inches tall. gain about 5 to 7 pounds a year

How do the growth rates differ during infancy and early childhood? Correct Answer: Childhood growth is slow and consistent How are children in the concrete operational stage different from those in the preoperational stage? Correct Answer: Piaget proposed that the concrete operational stage lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age. In this stage, children can perform concrete operations, and they can reason logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. Remember that operations are mental actions that are reversible, and concrete operations are operations that are applied to real, concrete objects. What concepts can concrete operational children understand that they could not previously? Correct Answer: For example, recall that in one task involving conservation of matter, the child is presented with two identical balls of clay. The experimenter rolls one ball into a long, thin shape; the other remains in its original ball shape. The child is then asked if there is more clay in the ball or in the long, thin piece of clay. By the time children reach the age of 7 or 8, most answer that the amount of clay is the same. To answer this problem correctly, children have to imagine the clay rolling back into a ball. This type of imagination involves a reversible mental action applied to a real, concrete object. Concrete operations allow the child to consider several characteristics rather than focusing on a single property of an object. In the clay example, the preoperational child is likely to focus on height or width. The concrete operational child coordinates information about both dimensions. Short-term memory: Correct Answer: The memory component in which individuals retain information for up to 30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal of the information. In Chapter 7, we concluded that short-term memory increases considerably during early childhood but after the age of 7 does not show as much increase. Working memory: Correct Answer: A mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language. Working memory is described as more active and powerful in modifying information than short-term memory. Working memory involves bringing information to mind and mentally working with or updating it, as when you link one idea to another and relate what you are reading now to something you read earlier. Long-term memory: Correct Answer: a relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory, increases with age during middle and late childhood. In part, improvements in memory reflect children's increased knowledge and their increased use of strategies. Sternberg's theory Correct Answer: Analytical intelligence to the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast Creative intelligence the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine Practical intelligence the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice. Analytical intelligence Sternberg's theory Correct Answer: to the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast Creative intelligence

Sternberg's theory Correct Answer: the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine Practical intelligence Sternberg's theory Correct Answer: the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences Correct Answer: verbal Writing, speaking, word puzzles mathematical Math games, numbers, logic puzzles spatial intelligence Maps, charts, drawing, sculpture body kinesthetic intelligence Movement, dance, sports interpersonal intelligence Cooperative games, peer tutoring, interacting with others intrapersonal intelligence Self-reflection, journaling, setting goals for self How is giftedness defined (measured)? Correct Answer: Having above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something What challenges might a gifted child face? Correct Answer: Socially isolated and underchallenged in the classroom. It is not unusual for them to be ostracized and labeled "nerds" or "geeks." Many eminent adults report that school was a negative experience for them, that they were bored and sometimes knew more than their teachers. A final concern is that African American, Latino, and Native American children are underrepresented in gifted programs. Much of the under-representation involves the lower test scores for these children compared with non-Latino White and Asian American children, which may be due to reasons such as test bias and fewer opportunities to develop language skills such as vocabulary and comprehension. How is a learning disability defined? Correct Answer: A condition of limited mental ability in which the individual (1) has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, (2) has difficulty adapting to the demands of everyday life, and (3) first exhibits these characteristics by age 18. Why are boys more likely to be labeled as having a learning disability? Correct Answer: About three times as many boys as girls are classified as having a learning disability. Among the explanations for this gender difference are a greater biological vulnerability among boys and referral bias. That is, boys are more likely to be referred by teachers for treatment because of troublesome behavior. How does bilingualism have a positive effect on children's development? Correct Answer: Children who are fluent in two languages perform better than their single-language counterparts on tests of control of attention, concept formation, analytical reasoning, cognitive flexibility, and cognitive complexity

Describe an activity a child of middle childhood age might engage in that demonstrates the concept of industry (Erikson's fourth stage). Correct Answer: The term industry expresses a dominant theme of this period: Children become interested in how things are made and how they work. When children are encouraged in their efforts to make, build, and work—whether building a model airplane, constructing a tree house, fixing a bicycle, solving an addition problem, or cooking—their sense of industry increases. Describe the major stages of Kohlberg's theory of morality. Correct Answer: Preconventional reasoning: Conventional reasoning: Postconventional reasoning: Preconventional reasoning: Correct Answer: The lowest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. The individual's moral reasoning is controlled primarily by external rewards and punishment. Conventional reasoning: Correct Answer: The second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, individuals abide by certain standards, but these are standards set by others such as parents or society. Postconventional reasoning: Correct Answer: The highest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code. How do children's ability to cope with stress and express emotion change? Correct Answer: As children get older, they are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it. Older children generate more coping alternatives to stressful conditions and use more cognitive coping strategies.They are better than younger children at intentionally shifting their thoughts to something that is less stressful and at reframing, or changing their perception of a stressful situation. By 10 years of age, most children are able to use these cognitive strategies to cope with stress. How does the parent-child relationship change as children move into middle and later childhood? Correct Answer: As children move into the middle and late childhood years, parents spend considerably less time with them. In one study, parents spent less than half as much time with their children aged 5 to 12 in caregiving, instruction, reading, talking, and playing as they did when the children were younger What is meant by the constructivist approach to education? Correct Answer: A learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher. In the constructivist view, teachers should not attempt to simply pour information into children's minds. Rather, children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher Describe the difference between a fixed and a growth mindset. Correct Answer: Fixed: in which they believe that their qualities are carved in stone and cannot change growth mindset Growth: in which they believe their qualities can change and improve through their effort. female DURING PUBERTY Correct Answer: First, either the breasts enlarge or pubic hair appears. Later, hair appears in the armpits. As these changes occur, the female grows in height and her hips

become wider than her shoulders. Menarche—a girl's first menstruation—comes rather late in the pubertal cycle. Initially, her menstrual cycles may be highly irregular. For the first several years, she may not ovulate every menstrual cycle; some girls do not ovulate at all until a year or two after menstruation begins. No voice changes comparable to those in pubertal males occur in pubertal females. By the end of puberty, the female's breasts have become more fully rounded. FEMALE PUBERTY AGE Correct Answer: For girls, menarche is considered within the normal range if it appears between the ages of 9 and 15. An increasing number of U.S. girls are beginning puberty at 8 and 9 years of age, with African American girls developing earlier than non-Latino White girls male PUBERTY CHANGES Correct Answer: Researchers have found that male pubertal characteristics typically develop in this order: increase in penis and testicle size, appearance of straight pubic hair, minor voice change, first ejaculation (which usually occurs through masturbation or a wet dream), appearance of kinky pubic hair, onset of maximum growth in height and weight, growth of hair in armpits, more detectable voice changes, and, finally, growth of facial hair. MALE PUBERTY AGE Correct Answer: As early as age 10 or as late as 13½, and it may end as early as age 13 or as late as 17. What are the main hormones associated with puberty for girls and for boys? Correct Answer: Testosterone is a hormone associated in boys with genital development, increased height, and deepening of the voice. Estradiol is a type of estrogen that in girls is associated with breast, uterine, and skeletal development. What are some health-risk behavioral issues that show an increase in adolescence? Correct Answer: Sexually Transmitted Infections, Adolescent Sexual Behavior, and Adolescent pregnancy What are the major characteristics of formal operational thought? Correct Answer: Adolescents are no longer limited to actual, concrete experiences as anchors for thought. They can conjure up make- believe situations, abstract propositions, and events that are purely hypothetical, and can try to reason logically about them What are some criticisms of Piaget's concept of formal operations? Correct Answer: Among their findings is that there is much more individual variation than Piaget envisioned: Only about one in three young adolescents is a formal operational thinker, and many American adults (and adults in other cultures) never become formal operational thinkers. Personal fable Correct Answer: is the part of adolescent egocentrism involving a sense of uniqueness and invincibility (or invulnerability). Personal fable EXAMPLE Correct Answer: "No one understands me, particularly my parents. They have no idea of what I am feeling." 14 - year-old Margaret says, "Are you kidding? I won't get pregnant." Imaginary audience Correct Answer: Adolescents' belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are, as well as attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and "on stage." Imaginary audience EXAMPLE Correct Answer: For example, an eighth-grade boy might walk into a classroom and think that all eyes are riveted on his spotty complexion

Identity: Correct Answer: our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles Self-esteem: Correct Answer: self-esteem is the overall way we evaluate ourselves Self-concept: Correct Answer: an idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of others Self-regulation: Correct Answer: the fact of something such as an organization regulating itself without intervention from external bodies. Diffusion: Correct Answer: is the status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments. Not only are they undecided about occupational and ideological choices, they are also likely to show little interest in such matters. Moratorium: Correct Answer: is the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined. Foreclosure: Correct Answer: is the status of individuals who have made a commitment but not experienced a crisis. This occurs most often when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, usually in an authoritarian way, before adolescents have had a chance to explore different approaches, ideologies, and vocations on their own. Achievement: Correct Answer: is the status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and made a commitment. What is meant by sexual identity? Correct Answer: Whether the person is heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual What is meant by ethnic identity? How does a positive ethnic identity relate to outcomes for ethnic minority adolescents? Correct Answer: Which part of the world or country a person is from and how intensely the person identifies with his or her cultural heritage. Most adolescents from ethnic minority groups develop a bicultural identity. That is, they identify in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with the majority culture. How does religion and spiritual development relate to social and cognitive development for adolescents? Correct Answer: A number of studies have found that adolescents who are involved in religious institutions are more likely to engage in service learning than their counterparts who don't participate in religious institutions What are the causes of, or factors related to, juvenile delinquency in adolescence? Correct Answer: lower socioeconomic status, Parental monitoring of adolescents, siblings What are the causes of, or factors related to, depression in adolescence? Correct Answer: Genes are linked to adolescent depression, having a depressed parent, emotionally unavailable parents, parents who have high marital conflict, and parents with financial problems, Poor peer relationships, Being stressed about weight-related concerns

What are the risk factors for suicide during adolescence? Correct Answer: Females are more likely to attempt suicide than males, but males are more likely to succeed in committing suicide. Males use more lethal means, such as guns, in their suicide attempts, whereas adolescent females are more likely to cut their wrists or take an overdose of sleeping pills—methods less likely to result in death. What are the roles of nutrition and exercise in the health of young adults? Correct Answer: Adolescence also is a critical time in the development of behaviors related to health, such as good nutrition and regular exercise, which are health enhancing, and drug abuse, which is health compromising. Significant changes occur in the adolescent's brain—the early development of the amygdala and the delayed development of the prefrontal cortex—that may contribute to risk taking and sensation seeking. Adolescent thinking becomes more abstract, idealistic, and logical—which Piaget described as the key aspects of formal operational thought. The brain's development and social contexts influence adolescents' decision making. How is adult cognition different from that of adolescents? Correct Answer: Piaget concluded that an adolescent and an adult think qualitatively in the same way. That is, Piaget argued that at approximately 11 to 15 years of age, adolescents enter the formal operational stage, which is characterized by more logical, abstract, and idealistic thinking than the concrete operational thinking of 7- to 11-year-olds. Piaget did stress that young adults are more quantitatively advanced in their thinking in the sense that they have more knowledge than adolescents. He also reasoned, as do information-processing psychologists, that adults especially increase their knowledge in a specific area, such as a physicist's understanding of physics or a financial analyst's knowledge about finance. According to Piaget, however, formal operational thought is the final stage in cognitive development, and it characterizes adults as well as adolescents. What is meant by post-formal thought? Correct Answer: Reflective, relativistic, and contextual. As young adults engage in solving problems, they might think deeply about many aspects of work, politics, relationships, and other areas of life. Post-formal thought holds that the correct answer to a problem requires reflective thinking and may vary from one situation to another. Some psychologists argue that reflective thinking continues to increase and becomes more internal and less contextual in middle age. According to Erikson's theory, _____ is described as finding oneself while losing oneself in another person. Correct Answer: Intimacy Versus Isolation How do the peer relationships of men and women differ? Correct Answer: Women have more close friends and their friendships involve more self-disclosure and exchange of mutual support. Women are more likely to listen at length to what a friend has to say and be sympathetic, and women have been labeled as "talking companions" because talk is so central to their relationship. Women's friendships tend to be characterized not only by depth but also by breadth: Women share many aspects of their experiences, thoughts, and feelings. When female friends get together, they like to talk, but male friends are more likely to engage in activities, especially outdoors. Thus, the adult male pattern of friendship often involves keeping one's distance while sharing useful information. Men are less likely than women to talk about their weaknesses with their friends, and men seek practical solutions to their problems rather than sympathy. Also, adult male friendships are more competitive than those of women. How prevalent is divorce? Correct Answer: Divorce has become an epidemic in the United States Early years of marriage

In what ways are gay and lesbian relationships similar to those of heterosexual couples? Correct Answer: gay and lesbian relationships are similar—in their satisfactions, loves, joys, and conflicts—to heterosexual relationships.For example, like heterosexual couples, gay and lesbian couples need to find the balance of romantic love, affection, autonomy, and equality that is acceptable to both partners What misconceptions about gay and lesbian relationships exist? Correct Answer: There are numerous misconceptions about gay and lesbian couples. Contrary to stereotypes, one partner is masculine and the other feminine in only a small percentage of gay and lesbian couples. Only a small segment of the gay population has a large number of sexual partners, and this is uncommon among lesbians. Furthermore, researchers have found that gays and lesbians prefer long-term, committed relationships. About half of committed gay couples do have an open relationship that allows the possibility of sex (but not affectionate love) outside the relationship. Lesbian couples usually do not have this open relationship. How do adults cope with and react to the impact of divorce? Correct Answer: both partners experience challenges after a marriage dissolves. Both divorced women and divorced men complain of loneliness, diminished self-esteem, anxiety about the unknowns in their lives, and difficulty in forming satisfactory new intimate relationships. One study revealed that following marital dissolution, both men and women were more likely to experience an episode of depression than individuals who remained with a spouse over a two-year period. And a recent Swedish study found that divorced adults were more likely to smoke daily than married or cohabiting adults. Despite all of these stresses and challenges, many people do cope effectively with divorce. Menopause: Correct Answer: Cessation of a woman's menstrual periods, usually during the late forties or early fifties. Climacteric: Correct Answer: The midlife transition during which fertility declines.The midlife transition during which fertility declines. What types of health problems may begin in middle adulthood? Correct Answer: Strength, Joints, and Bones: sarcopenia is given to age-related loss of muscle mass and strength Vision and Hearing: Correct Answer: Accommodation of the eye—the ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina—experiences its sharpest decline between 40 and 59 years of age. In particular, middle-aged individuals begin to have difficulty viewing close objects Height and Weight: Correct Answer: Individuals lose height in middle age, and many gain weight Cardiovascular System: Midlife is a time when high blood pressure and high cholesterol often take adults by surprise. Cardiovascular disease increases considerably in middle age Lungs: Correct Answer: at about age 55, the proteins in lung tissue become less elastic. This change, combined with a gradual stiffening of the chest wall, decreases the lungs' capacity to shuttle oxygen from the air people breathe to the blood in their veins Sleep: Correct Answer: wakeful periods are more frequent and there is less of the deepest type of sleep

Hormonal Changes: Correct Answer: most men do not lose their capacity to father children, although there usually is a modest decline in their sexual hormone level and activity, but nothing like the dramatic drop in estrogen that women experience Stress and Disease: Correct Answer: cumulative effect of stress often takes a toll on the health of individuals. Chronic stress can interfere with immune functioning, and this stress is linked to disease not only through the immune system but also through cardiovascular factors Fluid intelligence one's ability to reason abstractly, decline Correct Answer: Crystallized intelligence Correct Answer: Accumulated information and verbal skills, which increase in middle adulthood, according to Horn increases WITH AGE Information processing speed Correct Answer: One study found that 10- and 11-year-old children who were experienced chess players ("experts") remembered more about chess pieces than college students who were not chess players ("novices") declines WITH AGE Working memory Correct Answer: Working memory plays an important role in many aspects of children's cognitive and language development increases WITH AGE The term ____ describes adults' desire to leave legacies of themselves to the next generation. Correct Answer: Generativity How do men and women differ in reactions to stressful life events? Correct Answer: Women and men differ in the way they experience and respond to stressors. Women are more vulnerable to social stressors such as those involving romance, family, and work. Women also are more likely than men to become depressed when they encounter stressful life events such as divorce or the death of a friend. When men face stress, they are more likely to respond in a fight-or-flight manner—to become aggressive, withdraw from social contact, or drink alcohol. four longitudinal studies on stability and change in personality in adulthood Correct Answer: 1. Across a 10-year period, four of the five factors (the exception being openness) predicted outcomes involving physical health, blood pressure, and number of days limited at work or home due to physical health problems. Individuals high on neuroticism report more health complaints.

2. A study found that conscientiousness was related to college students' grade point averages
3. A meta-analysis revealed that openness was linked to pursuing entrepreneurial goals such as starting a new business, and to success in those pursuits
4. Individuals high on agreeableness were more likely to have satisfying romantic relationships Cognitive mechanics Correct Answer: The "hardware" of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological architecture of the brain.

Cognitive pragmatics Correct Answer: involve the speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization. Speed of processing Correct Answer: It is now well accepted that the speed of processing information declines in late adulthood Episodic memory Correct Answer: The retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings. Episodic memory EXPECTED CHANGE Correct Answer: Younger adults have better episodic memory than older adults have, both for real and imagined events. A study of 18- to 94-year-olds revealed that increased age was linked to increased difficulty in retrieving episodic information, facts, and events. Also, older adults think that they can remember older events better than more recent events, typically reporting that they can remember what happened to them years ago but can't remember what they did yesterday. However, researchers consistently have found that, contrary to such self-reports, in older adults the older the memory, the less accurate it is. This has been documented in studies of memory for high school classmates, foreign languages learned in school over the life span, names of grade school teachers, and autobiographical facts kept in diaries EXPECTED CHANGE Speed of processing Correct Answer: decline through the results of a study that measured reaction times in adults EXPECTED CHANGE Cognitive pragmatics Correct Answer: Because of the strong influence of culture on cognitive pragmatics, their improvement into old age is possible. Thus, although cognitive mechanics may decline in old age, cognitive pragmatics may actually improve, at least until individuals become very old Cognitive mechanics EXPECTED CHANGE Correct Answer: Because of the strong influence of biology, heredity, and health on cognitive mechanics, their decline with aging is likely. Some researchers conclude that the decline in cognitive mechanics may begin as soon as early midlife Semantic memory Correct Answer: is a person's knowledge about the world Explicit memory Correct Answer: Memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state. Explicit memory EXPECTED CHANGE Correct Answer: aging is linked with a decline in explicit memory Implicit memory Correct Answer: Memory without conscious recollection; involves skills and routine procedures that are automatically performed. Implicit memory EXPECTED CHANGE Correct Answer: Is less likely to be adversely affected by aging than explicit memory is. Thus, older adults are more likely to forget what items they wanted to buy at a grocery

store (unless they write them down on a list and take it with them) than they are to forget how to drive a car. Their perceptual speed might be slower in driving the car, but they remember how to do it. Prospective memory Correct Answer: Involves remembering to do something in the future, such as remembering to take your medicine or remembering to do an errand Prospective memory EXPECTED CAHNGE Correct Answer: played an important role in older adults' successful management of the medications they needed to take, declines with age What are the main findings of longitudinal studies in regards to cognitive functioning in late adulthood? What are the main conclusions drawn from research regarding the effect of memory/cognition training? Correct Answer: In sum, some improvements in the cognitive vitality of older adults can be accomplished through cognitive and fitness training. However, benefits have not been observed in all studies. An important finding in the recent meta-analysis of four longitudinal studies was that older adults were better able to maintain their cognitive functioning over a prolonged period of time when increasing their engagement in cognitive and physical activities. Further research is needed to determine more precisely which cognitive improvements occur in older adults as a result of training. Erikson's theory (Integrity v. Despair) Correct Answer: Erikson's eighth and final stage of development, which individuals experience in late adulthood, involves reflecting on the past and either integrating it positively or concluding that one's life has not been well spent. Life review is an important theme in Erikson's stage of integrity versus despair. Activity theory Correct Answer: Activity theory states that the more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives. This theory has been strongly supported by research. Socioemotional selectivity theory Correct Answer: Socioemotional selectivity theory states that older adults become more selective about their social networks. Because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, they are motivated to spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships. Knowledge-related and emotion-related goals change across the life span, with emotion-related goals being more important when individuals get older. Selective optimization with compensation theory Correct Answer: Selective optimization with compensation theory states that successful aging is linked with three main factors: (1) selection of performance domains, (2) optimization of existing capacities, and (3) compensation for deficits. These are especially likely to be relevant when loss occurs. List 3 factors that are related to positive, successful aging. Correct Answer: substantial potential for physical and cognitive fitness higher levels of emotional well-being more effective strategies for mastering the gains and losses of old age. Hospice: Correct Answer: A program committed to making the end of life as free from pain, anxiety, and depression as possible. The goals of hospice contrast with those of a hospital, which are to cure disease and prolong life.

Palliative care: Correct Answer: The type of care emphasized in a hospice, which involves reducing pain and suffering and helping individuals die with dignity. A recent study of older adults found that advance care planning was associated with improved quality of care at the end of life, including less in-hospital death and greater use of hospice care Correct Answer: What are current trends in the US regarding hospice and palliative care? Children VIEW ON DEATH Correct Answer: children 3 to 5 years of age have little or no idea of what death means, most children under 7 do not see death as likely. If they do, they tend to perceive it as reversible,do not view death as universal and irreversible until about 9 years of age Adolescents VIEW ON DEATH Correct Answer: develop more abstract conceptions of death than children do. For example, adolescents describe death in terms of darkness, light, transition, or nothingness. They also develop religious and philosophical views about the nature of death and whether there is life after death. Adults Correct Answer: An increase in consciousness about death accompanies individuals' awareness that they are aging, which usually intensifies in middle adulthood. Midlife is a time when adults begin to think more about how much time is left in their lives. Middle-aged adults actually fear death more than do young adults or older adults. Older adults, think about death more and talk about it more in conversation with others than do middle-aged and young adults. They also have more direct experience with death as their friends and relatives become ill and die. Kubler-Ross's 5 stages of dying Correct Answer: DENIAL AND ISOLATION ANGER BARGAINING DEPRESSION ACCEPTANCE Stage 1: Denial and isolation Correct Answer: is Kübler-Ross' first stage of dying, in which the person denies that death is really going to take place. The person may say, "No, it can't be me. It's not possible." This is a common reaction to terminal illness. However, denial is usually only a temporary defense. It is eventually replaced with increased awareness when the person is confronted with such matters as financial considerations, unfinished business, and worry about surviving family members. Stage 2: Anger Correct Answer: is Kübler-Ross' second stage of dying, in which the dying person recognizes that denial can no longer be maintained. Denial often gives way to anger, resentment, rage, and envy. The dying person's question is, "Why me?" At this point, the person becomes increasingly difficult to care for as anger may become displaced and projected onto physicians, nurses, family members, and even God. The realization of loss is great, and those who symbolize life, energy, and competent functioning are especially salient targets of the dying person's resentment and jealousy. Stage 3: Bargaining Correct Answer: is Kübler-Ross' third stage of dying, in which the person develops the hope that death can somehow be postponed or delayed. Some persons enter into a bargaining or negotiation—often with God—as they try to delay their death. Psychologically, the person is saying, "Yes, me, but.. ." In exchange for a few more days, weeks, or months of life, the person promises to lead a reformed life dedicated to God or to the service of others.

Stage 4: Depression Correct Answer: is Kübler-Ross' fourth stage of dying, in which the dying person comes to accept the certainty of death. At this point, a period of depression or preparatory grief may appear. The dying person may become silent, refuse visitors, and spend much of the time crying or grieving. This behavior is normal and is an effort to disconnect the self from love objects. Attempts to cheer up the dying person at this stage should be discouraged, says Kübler-Ross, because the dying person has a need to contemplate impending death. Stage 5: Acceptance Correct Answer: is Kübler-Ross' fifth stage of dying, in which the person develops a sense of peace, an acceptance of his or her fate, and in many cases, a desire to be left alone. In this stage, feelings and physical pain may be virtually absent. Kübler-Ross describes this fifth stage as the end of the dying struggle, the final resting stage before death. Prolonged or complicated grief: Correct Answer: Grief that involves enduring despair and remains unresolved over an extended period of time Disenfranchised grief: Correct Answer: which describes an individual's grief over a deceased person that is a socially ambiguous loss that can't be openly mourned or supported How are disenfranchised grief, prolonged grief, and complicated grief similar? Correct Answer: They all deal with the emotional numbness, disbelief, separation anxiety, despair, sadness, and loneliness that accompany the loss of someone we love. What are the two main dimensions in the dual process model of coping with bereavement? Correct Answer: (1) loss-oriented stressors, and (2) restoration-oriented stressors (dual-process model)