Effective Reading Strategies: Pre, During, & Post Reading for Secondary Students, Study notes of Art

Download Effective Reading Strategies: Pre, During, & Post Reading for Secondary Students and more Study notes Art in PDF only on Docsity!

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 295 127 CS 009 161

AUTHOR Jacobson, Annette, Ed. TITLE Essential Learning Skills across the Curriculum. INSTITUTION Oregon State Dept. of Education, Salem. PUB DATE 87 NOTE (^) 58p. PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Use Guides (For Teachers) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Content Area Reading; Content Area Writing; Critical Reading; Elementary Secondary Education; QuestioLing Techniques; Reading Comprehension; *Reading Instruction; Reading Skills; *Reading Strategies; Skill Development; Study Guides; *Teaching Methods; Test Wiseness; *Writing Across the Curriculum; Writing Evaluation; *Writing Instruction; Writing Processes; Writing Skills IDENTIFIERS Oregon; Prereading Activities; Semantic Mapping; Writing Strategies; Writing to Learn

ABSTRACT This guide presents research-based teaching strategies to assist teachers in implementing the Essential Learning Skills--symbol systems, literal meaning of information, implied meaning of information, evaluation of content and use of communication skills, expression of ideas, reasoning and study skills--in all curriculum areas. The first of three sections discusses reading across the curriculum, and presents before, during, and after reading strategies to increase reading comprehension and retention. The next section on instructional aids consists of: (1) before reading instructional aids, including questioning strategies, hypotheses development, vocabulary exercises, graphic outlines, and a list of alternative learning methods; (2) during reading instructional aids (study and reading guides); (3) after reading instructional aids, with summarizing strategies and question types; and (4) reading to learn, including critical reading activities,' test-taking strategies, and tips for faster reading. The last section of the booklet discusses writing across the curriculum, and presents writing to learn activities and suggestions for teaching the writing process of prewriting, drafting, revision, editing, presentation, and evaluation. (MM)

***********************************************************************

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document.

---

DearEducator,

AswemoveaheadwiththeOregonActionPlanforExcellence,anumberof districtsaredevelopingeffectivestrategiestoimplementtheEssentialLearning Skillsinallcurriculumareas.

Onedistrict,GrantsPassSchoolDistrict7,haspackagedtheirmaterialinaneasy- to-useandeffectivebookletwhichtheOregonDepartmentofEducationishappyto makeavailableforusestatewide.Theseresearch-basedstrategieswillassist teachersinmakingtheEssentialLearningSkillscomealiveintheirclassrooms.

Itisthroughthesharingoflocallydevelopedresourcessuchasthese,thatthe EssentialLearningSkillscontinuetobea"madeinOregon"product.

Cordially,

VerneA.Duncan StateSuperintendent ofPublicInstruction

ThisdocumentwaspreparedbystaffmembersoftheGrantsPassSchoolDistrict

undercontractwiththeOregonDepartmentofEducation.

Contributors

LisaBaldwin

DeeTaylor

CarolynWilliams

KathrynPassmore

PhilipHurley

AnnetteJacobson

Editor

AnnetteJacobson

ComputerProduction

KathieLollar

ItisthepolicyoftheStateBoardofEducationandapriorityoftheOregon

DepartmentofEducationthattherewillbenodiscriminationorharassment

onthegroundsofrace,color,sex,maritalstatus,religion,nationalorigin,age

orhandicapinanyeducationalprograms,activities,oremployment.Persons

havingquestionsaboutequalopportunityandnondiscriminationshould

contacttheStateSuperintendentofPublicInstructionattheOregon

DepartmentofEducation.

WhatareEssentialLearningSkills?

Oregon'sCommonCurriculumGoalsarecomposedof:

CommonKnowledgeandSkillsspecifictoeachcontentarea

EssentialLearningSkills(skillstobetaughtineverycontentarea)

SevenmajorcategoriesofEssentialLearningSkillshave

beenidentified:

Symbolsystems(words,numbers)

Literalmeaningofinformation

Impliedmeaningofinformation

Evaluationofcontentandusecfcommunicationskills

Expressionofideas(writingandspeaking)

Reasoningskills

Studyskills

Teacherswillberesponsiblefordevelopingtheseskillsin

theirclasses.

WHYESSENTIALLEARNINGSKILLS

ACROSSTHECURRICULUM?

EssentialLearningSkills

arenecessaryforlearning

subjectmattercontent

Practiceincontentareas

improvesdevelopmentof

EssentialLearningSkills

"Betterlearningoccurswhenimprovementis acollectiveratherthanasoloenterprise."

READINGACROSS

THECURRICULUM

Althoughtheword"reading"doesnotoccurinEssential LearningSkills,readingskillsarebasictoallofthem. Strategiesincludedinthissectionwillhelpstudents understandandrememberwhattheyreadincontentareas.

1

READINGACROSSTHECURRICULUM. ..

WHATRESEARCHTELLSUS

WHATIS ...

Studentsinsecondaryschooldonotcontinuetogainin readingskillsastheydoinelementaryschool.Infact, thereisaDECLINE;_ntheirabilitytodrawinferencesfrom whattheyread.

Studiesshowthatthereisverylittleeffectiveindependent learningfromtextbookreadingoccurringinmostsecondary subjectmatterclasses.

. Moststudentsdon'treallystudyatext.Theysimplytryto memorizeand/orfindanswerstoquestions.

Teachersgenerallyaskstudentsonlydetailandliteral questionsaboutwhattheyhaveread,testingratherthan teachingfromthetext.

Manystudentslackthestrategiestheyneedtocopeinsubject matterclassrooms.

WHATSHOULDBE ...

. BEFORE,DURINGandAFTERREADINGstrategiesshould

beusedtoincreaseCOMPREHENSIONandRETENTION. Withoutthese,readingproduceslittlelearning.

. Thegreatestgainsincomprehensionandretentionare producedifstudentslearnto: . (^) INTERACTwith . text, . teacher, . otherstudents,

and

. QUESTIONthemselvesaboutthetextandtheirown thinkingprocesses(metacognition). . Studentsbenefitmostfromindependentreadingifthey aretaughtSPECIFICSTEPSinTEACHINGTHEMSELVESfrom theirreading. . StudentsneedtobetaughtaVARIETYofapproachesto readingfcrdifferentkindsofcontent.

2

BEFOREREADINGSTRATEGIES

WHY?

Becausestudentsarebetterableto focusonwhatisimportant. receiveinformationandprocessitintoaframeofreference.

WHATARETHEY?

1.READFORPURPOSE

Letstudentsknowwhythey'rereading(discussion,report, etc.).Havethemwritequestionstheyexpectwillbe answeredwhentheyread(seepp.8,13,14)ordevelophypothesestobe testedduringreading.Seep.9.

2.RELATEREADINGTOPRIORKNOWLEDGE Beforethestudentsread,findoutwhattheyalreadyknowaboutthe subjectandwheretheylearnedit. Includebroadconcepts, vocabulary(seepp.10-12),andspecificinformationTrytorelateas muchofwhattheyareexpectedtolearnaspossibletowhatthey alreadyknow.

3.SURVEYORGANIZATIONALFEATURESOFTEXT

Havestudentssurveyorganizationalfeaturesofthetext(titles, subtitles,graphics,advancesummariesorotherorganizersor references).

4.PREDICTTEXTSTRUCTURE Helpstudentspredictstructureoftext(e.g.,compare/contrast, problem/solution).Seepp.13-16.

5.DECIDEONRATEOFREADING Determinewhetheritisnecessarytoreadfordetailortoskimfor thegeneralideaoflighterreading.Seep.30.

6.MONITORBEFOREREADINGACTIVITIES Monitoringisnecessarytomakesureactivitiesarecarriedout effectivelyandefficiently.

7.USEALTERNATIVELEARNINGMETHODS Whenstudentscannotcomprehendtextmaterial,considerusing alternatives.Seep.17.

0

WHY?

3

DURINGREADINGSTRATEGIES

Becausestudentsareableto confirmorrefirepredictions. extendtheirfocustomanageablepartsofthereading. discoverareasofmisunderstandingandclarifymeaningby self-questioningorgroupdiscussion.

WHATARETHEY?

1. (^) READACTIVELY Asstudentsread,havethemidentifyandnotethetopicsentenceor majorideasofspecificparagraphs,makeinferencesandevaluate theimportanceofwhatisbeingread.
2. READF,EXTBLY Varyreadingrateaccordingtodifficultyofreading;payparticular attentiontoimportantconcepts,skipoverothers.Seep.30.
3. READCONSTRUCTIVELYBYUSINGASTART/STOPPROCESS Afterstudentsreadasegmentofthetext,havethemstopandassesswhatthey havelearnedandunderstood.Thenhavethemrereaddifficultsectionsforany neededclarification.NewquestionsIndpredictionsforthenextportionofthetext shouldberaisedbeforereadingcontinues.Forstudentswhoarehaving difficulties,thisstart/stopprocessisveryimportanttoavoidmemoryoverloadand tokeepmisunderstandingsinonesegmentofthetextfrompreventingorhindering comprehensioninsubsequentportions.Seep.28.
4. USESELF.MONITORINGTECHNIQUES Studentsshouldaskthemselvesiftheyfullyunderstandtheconcepts, vocabulary,andinstructionsinthetext;ifthetextisconsistentwith theirpredictionsandpriorknowledge;andiftherearegapsinthe informationpresented.
5. USESTUDYGUIDES Forparticularlydifficultorpoorlyorganizedsectionsoftextbooks, studyguidescouldbeintroduced.Seepp.20 22.Thesearemost effectivewhenusedwithsmallgroupsorteacherdirecteddiscussion.

4

Imm moi

AFTERREADINGSTRATEGIES

WHY?

Becausestudentsareencouragedto reread,discussandreinforcenewideaswithincontext oftheirownexperience.Thisleadstobettercomprehension andretention.

WHATARETHEY?

DirectlyAfterReading

1. (^) CLARIFYREADING

Provideopportunitiesforthestudentstofillingapshitheinformation andclarifyanythingthattheydonotunderstand.Havethemrecallkey ideasandfactsfromthetextsanddistinguishbetweenfactandopinion,if applicable.Allresponsesshouldbeaccepted;however,studentsshould beabletodefendtheirselectionswithevidencefromthetextorother information.Discussoutcomesofpredictions.Usingthequestionsand categoriesintheframeorgraphicoutline(seepp.13 16),workinwhole orsmallgroupstoorganizeandcategorizetheinformation.Discussrelation- shipsanddeterminesignificanceandaccuracyofinformationandideasused todrawconclusions.

2. RESPONDCREATIVELYTOREADING

Havestudentsusereadingasastimulusforcreativewriting.

3. (^) SUMMARIZEREADING

Usebasicsummarystrategies(seep.24)orconstructasummaryof theinformationinthegraphicoutline.Seepp.15-16.

SometimeAfterReading

1. INTERPRETREADING

Usehigherlevelquestionsindiscussionjustbeforetestingtoincrease studentcomprehension.Seep.25.

2. (^) PREPAREFOREVALUATION

Havestudentswritequestionsforotherstudentstoanswer.Some couldbeusedastestquestions.

INSTRUCTIONAL

AIDS

BEFOREREADING

INSTRUCTIONALAIDS

'

1

8

BEFOREREADING ..

QUESTIONINGSTRATEGIES

WhyUseQuestioningStrategies?

Questioningstrategiesareimportantbefore,duringandafterreading.Whenquestionsare inmindbeforereading,studentshaveapurposefortheirreading.Theyarelesslikelyto bedistractedandaremorelikelytofocusonimportantaspectsofthetext.Asstudentsread toanswerquestionstheyhaveaskedthemselves,theybecomemoreactivelyengagedinthe readingprocess.Theyal.,oreadmoreeffectively,efficientlyandcritically.

Askingquestionsinsertedinthetext(adjunctquestions)duringreadingencourages readerstostopandthinkaboutwhattheyarereading.Afterreadingquestioningimproves comprehension.Teacherscanfacilitatelearningbyaskingapplicationorinference questionsifthetextasksthesametypeofquestionsandlittletimeelapsesbetween questioningandtesting.

HowtoTeachStudentstoAskQuestions

Thebestwaytoteachstudentstoaskquestionsbeforeandduringreadingistohavethem lookattextheadings,subheadings,andcaptions.Havethempracticeturningthese headingsintoquestions.Trytoleadthemintoaskingquestionsthatcompare,contrast, analyze,synthesizeandevaluateimportantaspectsofthetest.Bloom'staxonomymaybe usedasaguidefo-askingquestionsofincreasingdifficulty.Ifasubheadingis"Four ModelsoftheMind,"insteadofasking,'Whatarethefourmodelsofthemind?",have studentsaskwhatfeaturesmightbeuniquetoeachmodelorcommontoeachmodel.They mightalsodecideoncriteriatheycouldusetoevaluatetherelativeworthorutilityofeach model.

DEVELOPINGHYPOTHESES

Developinghypothesesandtestingthemcanhelpclarifymeaningandimprovereasoning skills.Inthesocialstudiesexamplebelow,studentsgroupvocabularywordsintosix categoriesandlabelthem.Sinceoverlappingcanoccur,therearenolightcrwrong answers.Fromthesixgroupings,studentsdevelopfourhypothesesaboutlifeincolonial Americaandthenreadthetexttoproveordisprovethem.

COLONIALAMERICAINTHE1750'S

LISTEDBELOWAREANUMBEROFWORDSCOMMONLYUSEDINTHE COLONIESINTHE1750'S.

apprentice (^) community flint leather saint ax congregation freeman meditation saw baptism conversion harvest oak sow barrel corn hoe pelt squash bench faith husbandry pewter trap clog fall keg pray whipping

GROUPWORDSWITHACOMMONTHEMEINCIRCLESBELOWANDLABEL

FROMYOURGROUPINGSABOVE,WRITEFOURHYPOTHESESABOUTLIFEIN

COLONIALAMERICA.READTEXTTOPROVEORDISPROVEEACH

HYPOTHESIS.

HYPOTHESIS:

HYPOTHES"'

HYPOTHESIS:

HYPOTHESIS:

ReprintedwithpermissionofHansonSilverStrongandAssociates,Inc.,FulfillingtheEducational Promise...Teachingstrategies,Vol.#2;wordsadaptedfrom:BarryK.Beyer,TeachingThinkingSkillsin SocialStudies,1979.

9

10

SAMPLEVOCABULARYEXERCISES

Anisolatedintroductionof"new"ordifficultwordswithdefinitionsdoeslittletoimprove comprehension.Thefollowingexercisesallowstudentstounderstandthemeaningofnew wordsbydevelopingrelationshipsandbackgroundinformation.Sinceitisnotpossibleto teachstudentsallvocabularyinatext,wordsshouldbeselectedthatrelatemostdirectlyto newideasandareriottaughtfullyinthetext.

TeacherDiagram

Afterselectingwordsthatarenecessaryforstudentunderstanding,arrangethemina diagramtoshowrelationshipsofideasintheunit.Onthefirstdayofthelesson,the teacherandstudentsdiscussgeneralconceptsintermsfamiliartothestudents.Usingan overheadorchalkboard,theteacherwritesoutthepreviouslydevelopeddiagram.Students discusswhytheythinkwordswerearrangedinthatmanner.

StudentPredictions

Beforereadinganewsection,studentslookatchaptertitlesandheadings.Fromthese, theypredictwordsthatwillbeincludedintheselection.Theteachernotesthemonthe boardoroverhead.Afterreadingtheassignment,thestudentsreportwhetherthosewords wereactuallyfoundinthereading.Here,theemphasisisonencouragingstudentstouse wordstheythinkarerelated,ratherthanwordstheteacherhaschosen.Whenstudents bringtheirownexperienceandinformationtothetopic,theyrealizehowpriorknowledge appliestonewlearning,andtheyimprovetheirabilitytoassociatewords.

11

SemanticMapping

Semanticfeatureanalysiscapitalizesonareader's

priorknowledgeandthewaysitisorganized. Itstresses

relationshipsamongconceptswithincategories.

1. Selectawordcentraltothestorytoberead,orfromanyother sourceofclassroominterestorneed.
2. Writethewordonthechalkboard.
3. Asktheclasstothinkofasmanywordsastheycanwhichare insomewayrelatedtothewordyouhavewritten,andjot themonpaper,incategories.
4. Haveindividualssharethewordstheyhavewrittenand,astheydo, writethemontheboardandattempttoputthenintocategories.For example,ifthewordyouwroteontheboardwas"school"thecompiled semanticmapmightlooklikethefollowingfigure.

Reading Math Art Science

Paper Pencils Rulers Chalk Erasers

Brick Wood Concrete

Learning Laughing Studying Fighting

Gym Artroom Lunchroom Lavatory

SMOOL

Preschool Elementary Juniorhigh Highschool College

Teachers Students Principal Custodian

Fun Boring Scary

Dentists Barbers Beauticians AutoMechanics

ReprintedwithpermissionofGinnPublishingCompany,DaleD.Johnson,ThreeSoundStrategicsforVoLabulary_Dcyclopmcr',.1983.

12

5. (^) Next,youmightwanttonumberthecategoriesandhavethestudents namethem.
6. (^) Aswithsemanticassociation,discussioniscrucialtothesuccessof semanticmapping.Themeaningsanduseofnewwords,newmeanings forknownwords,seeing"old"wordsinanewlight,andseeingthe relationshipsamongwordsarethedesirable(andinevitable)outcomes ofsemanticmapping.Bereadyforsomedisagreement;youhave putawordinonecategorywhenitcouldassensiblyhavebeenputin adifferentcategory.Somewordswillendupinseveralcategories.New wordswilltypicallybeaddedasthediscussionensues.
7. (^) Asthediscussionconcludes,itisoftennecessarytofocusattentionon oneortwocategoriesmappedfromthecentralconcept.Forexample, relatedtothesemanticmapinthefigureyoumayneedtosaysome- thinglikethis:

"Wehavepreparedquiteamapaboutschoolandhavelisted wordsinninecategories.That'sgreat!Theselectionwe're goingtoread,though,isaboutthedifferentkindsofschools tobefoundinoursociety.Itdescribespublic,privateand parochialschoolsaswellastradeschoolsandspecialtyschools. Whichtwocategorylistsonoursemanticmapcontainwords descriptiveofdifferentkindsofschools?Let'stalkaboutthese words.

Thistypeoffocusingdiscussion,whichdirectsstudents'attentiontospecificwordsonthe map,isappropriatewhenyouareusingsemanticmappingasaselection-specificbefore readingactivity.Oftensemanticmappingisdoneforgeneralvocabularydevelopment insteadofbeforereading(e.g.,usingacurrentevent,holiday,film,etc.asthecentral concept)andthenfocusingisnotanecessarypartofthediscussion.

Seeing"old"wordsinanewlightandseeingthe

relationshipsamongwordsarethedesirableand

inevitableoutcomesofsemanticmapping

ReprintedwithpermissionofGinnPublishingCo.,DaleD.Johnson,ThreeSoundStrategies_forVocabulary Development,1983.

PREDICTINGTEXTSTRUCTURE

Whenstudentsareabletopredicttextstructure,theycandevelopstrategiestobetter comprehendthematerial.Theymayalsousethisinformationtoestablishapurposefor reading.

ACTIVITY

Discussframecategoriesandquestions(seebelow)ordevelopagraphicoutlinefora specificcategory.Seepp.15 16.Overaperiodoftime,studentswilllearntheframe questionsofcategoriesforeachtextstructuresoeventuallythisinformationbecomesapart oftheirpriorknowledge.

SampieFrameQuestions/Categories

1. Problem/Solution.Muchwritinginsocialstudiesandliteraturetextsinvolves problemsandsolutionssuchasthenationaldebt.Inordertounderstanda problemandsolutionfully,itisnecessarytoanswerthefollowingframe questions:Whatwastheproblem?Whohadtheproblem?Whywasita problem?(Whatwerethenegativeeffects?)Whatattemptsweremadeto solvetheproblem?(Jones,1985b)Whatproblemsolvingstrategieswereused?
2. Concepts.Biology,socialstudies,andsciencetextsdevotemuchtimeto classifyingsomethingsuchasaninsect-eatingplant.Goodinstructioninsuch instancesofteninvolvesaddressingthefollowingquestions:Whatisthething? Whatcategorydoesitbelongto?Whatareitscriticalattributes?(Howdoesit work?Whatdoesitdo?Whatareitsfunctions?)Whatareexamplesofit?And, whereappropriate,whataresomenonexamples?(Markle,1975)
3. SequentialTexts.Manytextsdescribethestagesofsomething(e.g.,thestages inthelifecycleofaprimate),stepsinaprocedure(e.g.,howtoneutralizeanacid), orasequenceofevents(e.g.,howfeudalismledtonation-states).Insuch instances,itisimportantfortheteacherandstudentstoaddressthefollowing categories:identifythenameoftheobject,procedureorinitiatingevent;describe thestages,steps,series,showinghowoneleadstoanother;anddescribethefinal outcome.Seep.15forexampleofacausalchainframegraphicoutline.
4. DescriptionofOneThing.Descriptiveframesandcategoriesdependsomewhat onthenatureofwhatisbeingdescribed.Ingeography,forexample,regionsare usuallydescribedwithinthefollowingfivesuper-orainatecategories:land (physicalfeatures,climate,andnaturalresources),people(social/cultural, educational,religion),cities,economy,andgovernment.(Armbruster1980, ArmbrusterandAnderson1985,Herber1978,Stauffer1975).Processes(e.g., theformationoflimestone)involveadifferentsetofcategories;whatthenameof theprocessis,whenittakesplaceanditsduration,wheretheprocessoccurs,and thefunctionsoftheprocess(Lunzer,Davies,andGreen1980).Hanf(1971)has developedaninterestingwayofoutliningdescriptionsofonethingandfor concepts,calledspidermapping.Seep.16.

ReprintedwithpermissionofASCD,TeachingReadingasThinking,1986.

t

14

5. (^) ComparelContrastTwoorMoreThings.Likedescription,thecategories forcomparisonandcontrastdifferaccordingtowhatisbeingcompared orcontrasted.However,comparisonsshouldalwaysestablishclearly howthethings(people,places,events,ideas,etc.)aresimilar,giving examplesorfurtherdescriptiontosupportthegeneralization. Similarly,contrastanalysesmuststatee:plicitlyallthewaysinwhich thethingsaredifferentaswellasillustrateeachdifference(Jones. Amiran,andKatmis,1985).
6. (^) Goal/Action/Outcome.Sincemuchofhumanbehaviorinhistoryand literatureisgoaloriented(e.g.,theactionsoftheEuropeansasthey colonizedtheAmericas),ausefulwaytounderstandsuchbehavioris toidentifythegoals,actions,andoutcomesofthepersonorgroup (ArmbrusterandAnderson1985).
7. (^) InteractionFrames:ConflictlCooperation.Muchofhistoryandgood literatureinvolvestheinteractionoftwoormorepersonsorgroups. Tocomprehendthenatureoftheirinteraction,thekeyquestionsare: Whatarethepersons/groups?Whatweretheirgoals?Whatwasthe natureoftheirinteraction:conflictorcooperation?Howdidtheyact andreact?Whatwastheoutcomeforeachperson/group?(Jones1985b)
8. (^) InteractionFrames:CausalInteraction.Tounderstandthecausal interactionofacomplexeventsuchasanelectionoranuclearexplo- sion,oracomplexphenomenonsuchasthecausesofjuveniledelin- quencyorlearningdisabilities,thecriticaltaskinvolvesansweringthe followingquestions:WherearethefactorsthatcauseX?Whichones aremostimportant?Howdothefactorsinterrelate?Dosomefactors occurbeforeothers?ArethefactorsthatcauseXinitiallythesameas thosethataccountforitspersistence?Causalinteractioninformation isusuallyoutlinedinalogictreeornetworkconsistingofnodes(the causalfactors),withlinesshowingtherelationshipsbetweenfactors. Thatis,intersectinglinesindicateacausalrelationship.
9. (^) Proposition/Support.Thistypeofparagraphstructurepervadesallof expositoryprose.Itconsist.;ofageneralization,statement,argument, theme,orthesissupportedbyreasons,opinions,facts,quotes,examples, and/orreferences.Keyframequestionsare:Whatisthegeneraliza- tion?Howisitsupported?Additionally,itisimportanttoconsider levelsofinformationwithinthistypeofparagraph.Oftensuchpara- graphscontainmajorandminorideasaswellasoneormorelevelsof supportinginformation.

ReprintedwithpermissionofASCD,TeachingReadingasThinking,1986.

SAMPLEGRAPHICOUTLINES

(1) SequentialText:CausalChainFrameExample

Likeallframes,acausalchainframecanbeusedto:

Survey/Predict:guideorfocuspredictionsandsetapurposeforreading. Read:takenotesonimportantinformation. Construct:organizethedetailedinformationintomainideasafterreadingthetext.

QuestionfortheCausalChainFramewiththeRelatedDiagram.

Whydoesonesituationchangetoanothersituation?

SITUATIONA

Example Situation:Feudalism

Event

AsaresultoftheCrusades,EuropeanstraveledtotheEastand tradedwithotherpartsoftheworld.

Event

TradeincreasedaftertheCrusadeswereoverbecausetheEuro- peanswantedAsiangoods.

Event

Somekingsbecamemorepowerfulthanothersbecausethe tradersormerchantsformedallianceswiththekingsforprotec- tion.

Event

1 Themorepowerfulkingsunitedsmallkingdomstoform I nation-states.

SITUATIONB Situation:Nation-States

15

ReprintedwithpermissionofASCD,TeachingReadingAsThinking,1986.

16

(2)DescriptionofOneThing:SpiderMappingExample

ReprintedwithpermissionofASCD,TeachingReading_gThinking,1986.

ALTERNATIVELEARNINGMETHODS

Alternativelearningmethodscanhelpstudentswhohavedifficultyacquiringinformation fromthetextobtainthesameinformationinadifferent,moreunderstandableway.

Indevelopinganalternativelearningmethod,itisimportanttooutlinethemajorconcepts thatareimportantnomatterwhatmeansthestudentusestoacquiretheinformation. Vocabularyconceptsandskillscanbedeterminedthroughaskillsanalysis.

Manydifferentmediaformscanbeuseddependingonwhatisavailable.Some possibilitiesare:

lowerleveltext filmstrips (^) higherleveltext cassettetapes (^) rewrittenversion records (^) (i.e.skillcards) computerprograms (^) videotapes

Inorderforthisapproachtobeeffective,studentsshouldbeguidedthroughastep-by-step process.Thiscouldincludequestionsandanswers,vocabularydevelopment,andfollow- upactivitiesorapplication.

17

DURINGRENDING

INSTRUCTIONALAIDS

20

DURINGREADING ...

USINGSTUDYGUIDES

Readingcanbeguidedmorepreciselybyaskingquestionsaboutspecificpartsofthe chapter.Teacher-posedquestionsshouldhelpstudentsidentifymainideasandreinforce thegeneralflowofthechapter.Theyshouldnotfocusoninsignificantdetailsorbe scrambledinorder.Someteachersfeelguidedreadingistooimmaturefoimiddleand seniorhighschoolstudents,butthatassumptionisfalse.Handledproperly,studentswill respondwell.

Questionslistedinwrittenformarecalledstudyguides.However,studyguidescan incorporateotherelementsofthecontentteachingplanbesidesquestions(i.e,vocabulary development,followupactivities).Theycanhelpstudentscomprehendtextatallgrade levels,butareespeciallyhelpfulbeyondtheelementarygrade.

Studentsmustbetaughthowtousestudyguides.Theyshouldknowthepurposeofthe guide(todirectreadingandidentifymainideas,stimulatethinking,orprovidefor individualdifferences).

FACTORSTOCONSIDERINDESIGNINGSTUDYGUIDES

Sincestudyguidescanbecomeboringtostudentsandtimeconsumingforteachersto develop,keepinmindthefollowingfactors:

Aclearpurposemustbeidentified. Formatshouldbesimpleandunclutteredwithclear,concisedirections. Concentrateonsectionsofthetextcontainingdifficultorimportantconcepts. Formatsshouldbevaried.Questionsareimportant,butother ?ctivitiescanbeincluded.Organizationofthetext(compare/contrast, cause/effect,timeorder,simplelisting)canalsobeusedtovaryformats. Individualstudentswilldifferintheamountofhelpanddirection neededtocompletetheguide.Sincethegoalistoincreasecomprehension, provideasmuchinformationasnecessaryforpoorreaders(i.e.,page, paragraphandlinenumber). Thevalueofeachstudyguideformatshouldbeassessedasitisbeingused bystudents.Reviseguidesastheneedarises. Studyguidesshouldbechallenging.Theycanbesupplementedwith reinforcingactivitiesandiditionalreadingsuggestions. Studyguidesshouldnotbegraded.Thiseliminatestheneedfor cheatingorcopying. Smallgroupsandteacherdirecteddiscussionmakestudyguides mosteffective.

21

STUDYGUIDEEXAMPLES

Example1. CHAPTER17-DEVELOPMENTOFANEWSPECIES

QUESTIONS (^) ANSWERS

A. (^) Whatcausesnewgenes?

1. Howdonewgenesarise bymutation?

B. (^) Howdochangesingenesaffectpopulation?

1. Howfrequentlydocertaingenesoccur inpopulation?

Newwordsandconcepts

mutation

populationgenetics

Mutation

Atcelldivision,theDNA moleculeinthecelldoes notduplicateitself Mutationrateaffectedby temperature,chemicals, radiation

Provideagreatamountof geneticvarietyinorganisms

Variable...predictionof frequencybasedon assumptionsfrontwhich conclusionsaredrawn

Meaning

Whenthenewgeneisnotan exactcopyoftheoriginal

Studiesofgenesofanentire popularon

ReprintedwithpermissionofRayThiess,Specialist,ScienceEducation,OregonDepartmentofEducation, FrameworkforSciencePrograms,1979.

Example2. COMPARINGTHEVIEWSOFJEFFERSONANDHAMILTON

Pointstocompare (^) Jefferson

Purposeofgovernment

Hamilton

TypeofnationU.S.shouldbe

TheRoleofStateGovernments

Reprintedwithper...issionofHoughtonMifflinCompany,J.DavidCooper,Impigiinglmjing Comprehension,1986.