Download EDUC 210- PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION NOTES FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE 2024 and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! 1 EDUC 210- PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION NOTES FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE 2024 Module 1 ✓ What is educational psychology? ✓ What are the different types of Research Design? ✓ How does one interpret basic statistical information, such as “correlation”? Chapter 1 • Diversity is more concentrated in largest cities • 1\7 children live in poverty • Teachers’ sense of efficacy: a teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn • HIGH sense of efficacy= harder work and persistent + less likely to experience burnout + more satisfied with their jobs • Sense of efficacy decline after first year of teaching (due to support provided for teachers) • HIGH efficacy = HIGH expectations for students + teachers receive help from principle • Efficacy grows from success with students • For a while, some researchers reported findings suggesting that wealth and social status, not teaching, were the major factors determining who learned in schools • Purpose of educational psychology is to go beyond individual experiences and testimonies and to examine the impact of teaching on lives of students by using designed research studies. • Quality of teacher-student relationship in kindergarten (level of conflict with child\ dependency on teacher\ teacher’s affect with child) predicted a number of academis and behavioural outcomes through grade 8 • Relationship predicted aspects of school success • 2 factors helped children with lower skills in maths – 1. Higher level of instruction 2. Positive relationship with teachers • Students with significant behavioural problems in the early years are less likely to have problems later in school if their first teachers are sensitive to their needs and provide frequent, consistent feedback • Measures of teacher preparation and certification strongest predictors of student achievement in reading and mathematics, both before and after controlling for student poverty and English language proficiency 2 • Higher the percentage of teachers who are teaching outside their field, the lower their students’ achievement tends to be • Teaching standards: ➢ Point: School renewal depends on what the teacher knows and can do to enhance their student’s learning ➢ Counterpoint: Teaching standards have more to do with punishing teachers rather than enhancing their professionalism. it is unfair to create standards as a set of responsibilities for teachers without also acknowledging the responsibility of employers (i.e., school and district administrators, governments) to ensure that conditions are met that enable teachers to meet the standards ➢ Teachers must deal with a wide range of student abilities and challenges: different languages, different home situations, and different abilities and disabilities • Reflective- Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students • Good teacher: Teachers must be both knowledgeable and inventive. They must be able to use a range of strategies, and they must also be able to invent new strategies. They must have some basic research-based routines for managing classes, but they must also be willing and able to break from the routine when the situation calls for change. They must know the research on student development, “patterns common to particular ages, culture, social class, geography, and gender”, and they also need to know their own particular students, who are unique combinations of culture, gender, and geography. Personally, we hope you all become teachers who are both “sages” and “guides,” wherever you stand. • Students differ in knowledge of subjects, language, socioeconomic status, culture, race and ethnicity. Bring different strengths, abilities and challenges. • To take advantage of such differences, Differentiated instructions should be given to take advantage of the diversity, not ignore it • Elements of differentiation: students- seeking purpose, challenge, affirmation, power, and the chance to contribute. Teacher- views these different student needs as opportunities, not problems, and responds with invitation, investment, persistence, opportunity, and reflection. 5 existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. Single-subject Experimental studies Systematic interventions to study effects with one person, often by applying and then withdrawing a treatment. ➢ ABAB experiment Observe an individual for a baseline period (A) and assess the behaviour of interest; then try an intervention (B) and note the results; then remove the intervention and go back to baseline conditions (A); and finally reinstate the intervention (B). Microgenetic Studies (expensive and time consuming) Detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as the process unfolds over several days or weeks The microgenetic approach has three basic characteristics: the researchers (a) observe the entire period of the change—from when it starts to the time it is relatively stable; (b) make many observations, often using videotape recordings, interviews, and transcriptions of the exact words of the individuals being studied; (c) put the observed behaviour “under a microscope;” that is, examined moment by moment or trial by trial. The goal is to explain the underlying mechanisms of change. Teachers as Researchers ➢ Action Research Systematic observations or tests of methods that teachers or schools conduct to improve teaching and learning for their students. • Correlation: It is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a relationship between two events or measurements. Correlations range from 1.00 to –1.00. The closer the correlation is to either 1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship. For example, the correlation between height and weight is about .70 (a strong relationship); the correlation between height and number of languages spoken is about .00 (no relationship at all). • Correlation X causation • The Role of Time in Research: 6 ➢ Longitudinal studies: Studies that document changes that occur in subjects over time, often many years. (hey are informative, but time-consuming, expensive, and not always practical) ➢ Cross-sectional studies: Studies that focus on groups of subjects at different ages rather than following the same group for many years. • Enough studies= principle • Principle is an established relationship between factors • Theory is another too that helps understand teaching and learning processes • Theory: Integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions. • Theory vs Principle : A principle is an established relationship between two or more factors —between a certain teaching strategy, for example, and student achievement. A theory is an interrelated set of concepts that is used to explain a body of data and to make predictions about the results of future experiments. The principles from research offer a number of possible answers to specific problems, and the theories offer perspectives for analyzing almost any situation that may arise. Research is a continuing cycle that involves clear specification of hypotheses or questions based on good theory, systematic gathering and analyzing of data, modification and improvement of explanatory theories based on the results, and the formulation of new, better questions based on the improved theories • Research Design: 1. Hypothesis : A prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research. 2. Clear specification of hypotheses or questions based on current understandings or theories; 3. Systematic gathering and analyzing of all kinds of information (data) about the questions from well-chosen research participants; 4. Modification and improvement of explanatory theories based on the results of those analyses; and 5. Formulation of new and better questions based on the improved theories 7 Slides Module 1 • Effective teacher: developing a combination of both personal qualities and academic knowledge that would enable one to build positive teacher-student relationships, all the while, helping students construct academic content knowledge. • Science of teaching- learn through teacher-training program • Art of teaching- through experience • Differentiate Instruction: This approach encourages teachers to take into consideration their students’: • Knowledge base(s) • Language background • SES • Culture, race and ethnicity • Learning styles • Shift from thinking “How am I doing?” to “How are the students doing?” • Educational Psychology is the study of learning and teaching, with the goal of improving educational practices. • It includes: 1. The study of child and adolescent development 2. Learning and motivation 3. Socio-cultural influences on learning 4. How people learn different subject matter 5. Assessment of teaching and learning 6.The training of teachers • Correlational relationship can be positive (+) or negative (-) or zero (0). • An example of a positive correlation (+) is: Consumers’ perception — The more I • pay, the better quality it is. • An example of a negative correlation (-) is: The more I spend, the less I save. • A zero correlation means that the two phenomenon are not likely to occur • together: Curly hair and salary have a zero correlation (r = 0). • The strongest correlational relationships are either +1.00 or -1.00. Quiz Question and Answers Module 1 1. The use of the “common sense” approach to teaching is viewed by educational psychologists 10 type of research that was performed must have been what type of study? A) Correlational B) Descriptive C) Experimental D) Observational Answer: C Explanation: C) Dr. Patterson can infer cause and effect only from experimentation. Correlational research and observational research provide descriptive results that do not support causal relations. However, these latter two types of research can often lead to questions that can be studied by means of experimental research. 9. According to Woolfolk et al., good theories A) explain and predict perfectly. B) are less scientific compared to ten years ago. C) give you a new way of thinking about problems D) offer all the answers. Answer: C Explanation: C) Few theories are able to explain and predict perfectly or offer all the answers. A good theory however, will provide a new framework for thinking about problems. For example, a good theory of classroom management might provide new insights about discipline problems, give you tools for creating solutions to many different problems and for predicting what might work in new situations (i.e., different classroom contexts, different populations of students etc.) 10. According to Woolfolk et al., good theories E) explain and predict perfectly. F) are less scientific compared to ten years ago. G) give you a new way of thinking about problems H) offer all the answers. Answer: C Explanation: C) Few theories are able to explain and predict perfectly or offer all the answers. A good theory however, will provide a new framework for thinking about problems. For example, a good theory of classroom management might provide new insights about discipline problems, give you tools for creating solutions to many different problems and for predicting what might work in new situations (i.e., different classroom contexts, different populations of students etc.) Module 2 ✓ What are the important principles of Development Stage Theories? ✓ What basic functions are represented in different regions of the brain? ✓ On Piaget: What motivates development? What are the basic mechanisms of Adaptation and Development? 11 What are the four stages of cognitive development and what\how do individuals solves problems differently in these stages? ✓ On Vygotsky How does private speech contribute to development of cognition? What is the zone proximal development? Chapter 2 • Development: Orderly, adaptive changes that humans (or animals) go through from conception to death 1. Physical development: Changes in body structure that take place as one grows. 2. Personal development: Changes in personality that take place as one grows. 3. Social development: Changes over time in the ways in which one relates to others. 4. Cognitive Development: Gradual, orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. • Maturation: changes that occur naturally and spontaneously, and that are, to a large extent, genetically programmed. Such changes emerge over time and are relatively unaffected by environment, except in cases of malnutrition or severe illness. Much of a person’s physical development falls into this category • Nature vs. Nurture: Today the environment is seen as critical, but so are biological factors and individual differences. Can’t be separated • Coactions: Joint actions of individual biology and environment—each shapes and influences the other. • Developmental Stage Theories: 1. Continuous vs. Discontinuous 2. Earlier vs. Later experiences 3. Nature vs Nurture • Qualitative discontinuous change VS gradual, continuous quantitative change • Sensitive periods: Times when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain experiences. • General principles of Development: 1. People develop at different rates 2.Development is relatively orderly 3. Development takes place gradually 12 • Cerebellum: coordinates and orchestrates balance and smooth, skilled movements—from the graceful gestures of a dancer to the everyday action of eating without stabbing yourself in the nose with a fork. The cerebellum may also play a role in higher cognitive functions such as learning • Hippocampus: critical in recalling new information and recent experiences • Amygdala: Directs emotions • Thalamus: ability to learn new information, particularly if it is verbal. • Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): how blood flows within the brain when chilren or adults do different cognitive tasks • Event-related potential (ERP): measurements assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull or scalp as people perform activities such as reading or learning vocabulary words. • Position emission tomography (PET): scans that track brain activity under different conditions. • Neurons: specialized never cells that accumulate and transmit information (in the form of electrical activity) in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. • Neurogenesis: production of new neurons • Synapses: The tiny space between neurons; chemical messages are sent across these gaps. • Each of the child’s 100 to 200 billion neurons has about 2500 synapses 15 • During adolescence, changes in the brain increase individuals’ abilities to control their behaviour in both low-stress and high-stress situations, to be more purposeful and organized, and to inhibit impulsive behaviour (BUT trouble avoiding risks and controlling impulses) • Limbic system: it is involved with emotions and reward-seeking/novelty/risk- taking/sensation-seeking behaviours. • Prefrontal lobe: more time to develop; it is involved with judgment and decision making. • Connections to family, school, community, and positive belief systems help adolescents “put the brakes” on reckless and dangerous behaviours • Cultural differences in brain activity provide examples of how interactions in the world shape the brain • For example, in one study, when Chinese speakers added and compared Arabic numbers, they showed brain activity in the motor (movement) areas of their brains, whereas English speakers performing the same tasks had activity in the language areas of their brains. One explanation is that Chinese children are taught arithmetic using an abacus—a calculation tool that involves movement and spatial positions. As adults, these children retain a kind of visual-motor sense of numbers. There also are cultural differences in how languages affect reading. For example, when they read, native Chinese speakers activate additional parts of their brain associated with spatial information processing, probably because the characters used in written Chinese are pictures. But Chinese speakers also activate these spatial areas of the brain when they read English, demonstrating that reading proficiency can be reached through different neural pathways • Schools should not be run on curriculums based solely on the biology of the brain. However, to ignore what we do know about the brain would be equally irresponsible. Brain-based learning offers some direction for educators who want more purposeful, informed teaching. At the very least, the neuroscience research is helping us to understand why effective teaching strategies, such as distributed practice, work. • Piaget’s theory of cognitive development • According to Piaget, our thinking processes change radically, though slowly, from birth to maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world. • Four factors (interact and influence changes in thinking)- 1. Biological maturation 2. Activity 3. Social experiences 4. Equilibration 16 • 1. Maturation- he unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically programmed. Parents and teachers have little impact on this aspect of cognitive development, except to ensure that children get the nourishment and care they need to be healthy • 2. Activity- With physical maturation comes the increasing ability to act on the environment and learn from it. When a young child’s coordination is reasonably developed, for example, the child may discover principles about balance by experimenting with a seesaw. Thus, as we act on the environment—as we explore, test, observe, and eventually organize information— we are likely to alter our thinking processes at the same time. • 3. Social transmission- we also interact with the people around us. Without social transmission, we would need to reinvent all the knowledge already offered by our culture. The amount people can learn from social transmission varies according to their stage of cognitive development. • Piaget concluded that all species inherit two basic instincts, or “invariant functions.” The first of these tendencies is toward organization—the combining, arranging, recombining, and rearranging of behaviour and thoughts into coherent systems. The second tendency is toward adaptation, or adjusting to the environment. • Organization : People are born with a tendency to organize their thinking and knowledge into psychological structures or schemes. These psychological structures are our systems for understanding and interacting with the world • Schemes: Mental systems or categories of perception and experience. As a person’s thinking processes become more organized and new schemes develop, behaviour also becomes more sophisticated and better suited to the environment. • Adaptation: In addition to the tendency to organize their psychological structures, people also inherit the tendency to adapt to their environment. Two basic processes are involved in adaptation: 1. Assimilation: Using existing schemes to make sense of events in our world. Trying to understand something new by fitting it into what we already know. We might distort the new information to make it fit. 2. Accommodation: When on changes the existing schemes to respond to a new situation. If data cannot fit to existing schemes, more appropriate structures must be developed. Adjust the thinking instead of the information. 17 • 4. Equilibration: organizing, assimilating, and accommodating can be seen as a kind of complex balancing act. In his theory, the actual changes in thinking take place through the process of equilibration—the act of searching for a balance • Process of equilibration: If we apply a particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works, equilibrium exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, disequilibrium exists, and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a solution through assimilation and accommodation, and thus our thinking changes and moves ahead. Of course, the level of disequilibrium must be just right or optimal —too little and we aren’t interested in changing, too much and we may be discouraged or anxious and not change. • Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Stage Approx. Age Characteristics Sensorimotor 0-2 years old Learns through reflexes, senses, and movement— actions on the environment. Begins to imitate others and remember events; shifts to symbolic thinking. Comes to understand that objects do not cease to exist when they are out of sight —object permanence. Moves from reflexive actions to intentional activity. (object permanence – objects have own existence) (goal- directed actions – actions toward a goal) Preoperational (The stage of development before a child masters logical mental operations.) egocentric (others experience the world the way you do) Decentring (more than one aspect at time Conservation (some characteristics of object Child starts talking- 7 years old Develops language and begins to use symbols to represent objects. Has difficulty with past and future—thinks in the present. Can think through operations logically in one direction. Has difficulties understanding the point of view of another person. 20 who are more capable or advanced in their thinking—people such as parents and teachers. Of course, students can learn from both adults and peers, and today, computers can play a role in supporting communication across distances or in different languages • Cultural tools: The real tools (computers, scales, etc.) and symbol systems (numbers, language, graphs, etc.) that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge. • Cultural tools play an important role in the cognitive development. • Technological tools: calculatiors\spell checkers • Psychological tools: Vygotsky believed psychological tools mediate (help to accomplish) all higher-order mental processes, such as reasoning and problem solving. • Vygotsky believed the essence of cognitive development is mastering the use of psychological tools such as language to accomplish the kind of advanced thinking and problem solving that could not be accomplished without those tools • In this exchange of signs and symbols and explanations, children begin to develop a “cultural tool kit” to make sense of and learn about their world • Private speech: Children’s self-talk, which guides their thinking and action; eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech. • Piaget called it Collective monologue: Form of speech in which children in a group talk but do not really interact or communicate. (egocentric speech) • Rather than being a sign of cognitive immaturity, these mutterings play an important role in cognitive development because they move children toward self-regulation—the ability to plan, monitor, and guide one’s own thinking and problem solving • At the end, the child learns to regulate her own behaviour by using silent inner speech Piaget Vygotsky Developmental significance Represents an inability to take the perspective of another and engage in reciprocal communication Represents externalized thought; its function is to communicate with the self for the purpose of self- guidance and self-direction Course of development Declines with age Increases at younger ages and then gradually loses its audible quality to become internal verbal thought Relationship to social Negative; least socially Positive; private speech 21 speech and cognitively mature children use more egocentric speech develops out of social interaction with others Relationship to - Increases with task environmental contexts difficulty; private speech serves a helpful self- guiding function in situations where more cognitive effort is needed to reach a solution • Zone of proximal development: the area between the child’s current developmental level “as determined by independent problem solving” and the level of development that the child could achieve “through adult guidance or in collaboration with more peers” • Phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support. • Private speech and the ZPD : an adult helps a child to solve a problem or accomplish a task using verbal prompts and structuring. This support can be gradually reduced as the child takes over the guidance, perhaps first by giving the prompts as private speech and finally as inner speech • Learning through play! (PIAGET) Children’s thinking rather than guiding teachers • Role of adults and peers (VYGOTSKY) • Assisted learning: Learning by having strategic help provided in the initial stages; the help gradually diminishes as students gain independence. • Influences on cognitive development: Vygotsky believed that human activities must be understood in their cultural settings. He believed that our specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others; that the tools of the culture, especially the tool of language, are key factors in development; and that the zone of proximal development is the area where learning and development are possible . • WHAT IS A STUDENT’S ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT? At any given point in development, there are certain problems that a child is on the verge of being able to solve and others that are beyond the child’s capabilities. The zone of proximal development is the area where the child cannot solve a problem alone, but can be successful under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more advanced peer. Slides Module 2 • People debate passionately about how we develop: 22 • Is it driven by nature or environment? 1.Some people argue that genetics determine who we are and how we behave. 2.Others argue that it is our surrounding environments and our day-to-day experience that shapes who we are and how we behave. • Is it a continuous, ongoing process, or does it involve distinct qualitative changes? 1. Clearly, when we look at a child growing taller over time, it certainly appears that development is a continuous process. 2.However, when girls begin menstruation, or boys change their voices, these changes signal the onset of a very different stage. • Is development time sensitive? There is the saying “You cannot teach an old dog new tricks.” 1. Do you find this to be true? 2.Is there, for example, any hope that I can learn German at the age of 50? • There is compelling evidence that: 1. Development is the result of co-action of both nature and environment. 2. Some aspects of development are continuous and change quantitatively, while other aspects of development are discontinuous, resulting in qualitative changes. 3. Early experience and later experience are both important factors in development. Neo-piagetian: Neo-Piagetian theorists support Piaget’s idea that cognitive development occurs in stages. They also agree with Piaget that biological maturation mediates the kinds of thinking children are capable of doing at particular ages. Neo-Piagetians also share Piaget’s belief that children’s thinking reflects their developing internal mental structures. Quiz and Answers Module 2 1. Which one of the following is an example of maturation? A) Gaining weight from age two to age three B) Losing weight due to exercise C) Losing weight during a brief illness D) Learning which foods produce the most weight Answer: A Explanation: A) Maturation refers to changes that occur naturally and spontaneously rather than as a result of environmental circumstances. An example would be gaining weight from age two to age three. [Note: losing weight due to illness or exercise is not a natural occurrence, but one that is caused by particular environmental events.] 2. All developmental theories have the following general principle in common A) Development is balanced. B) Development is gradual. 25 Answer: B Explanation: B) According to Vygotsky, private speech serves the beneficial function of guiding activities in solving a problem. Use of private speech is most common in the five- to seven-year range. 12. The zone of proximal development is the area where students may solve a problem A) by themselves. B) with no disequilibrium. C) with support. D) without frustration. Answer: C Explanation: C) The zone of proximal development is the area between the learner's current development level and the level the learner could achieve with some support from a more capable peer or through adult guidance. Module 3 ✓ What are the different parenting styles and how do they contribute to individual’s social- emotional development? 26 ✓ What experience and influence affect an individual’s sense of identity and self-concept? ✓ What are the 4 types of adolescent identities? ✓ On Erikson What are the 8 stages of psychosocial development? What are the personal conflicts that individuals experience at different life stages, from birth to old age? ✓ On moral development What are the stages of moral development according to Kohlberg and Gilligan? ✓ What is Theory of mind? Chapter 3 • Physical and Motor development • Gross motor skills and fine motor skills • Puberty: physiological changes during adolescence that lead to the ability to produce • Menarche: first menstrual period in girls • Spermarche: first ejaculation • Maturing way ahead of class is a disadvantage socially • Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children and youth • Research on physical activity and cognitive development and concluded that “systematic exercise programs may actually enhance the development of specific types of mental processing known to be important for meeting challenges encountered both in academics and throughout the lifespan • Challenges in physical development: obesity (BMI)- The consequences of obesity are serious for children and adolescents: diabetes, strain on bones and joints, respiratory problems, and greater chance of heart problems as adults. • Eating disorders: Bulimia\anorexia • Educational and developmental psychologists are increasingly interested in the role of context, which refers to the total situation that surrounds and interacts with an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions and shapes development and learning. • Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development recognizes that the physical and social contexts in which we develop are ecosystems because they are in constant interaction and influence each other 27 • Parenting styles: • Authoritative parents are high in warmth but they also exert firm control. They set clear limits, enforce rules, and expect mature behaviour. But they are warm with their children. They listen to concerns, give reasons for rules, and allow more democratic decision making. There is less strict punishment and more guidance. Parents help children think through the consequences of their actions (Hoffman, 2001). • Authoritarian parents can seem cold and controlling in their interactions with their children. The children are expected to be mature and to do what the parent says, “Because I said so!” There is not much talk about emotions. Punishments are strict, but not abusive. The parents love their children, but they are not openly affectionate. • Permissive parents are warm but have little control. They have few rules or consequences for their children and expect little in the way of mature behaviour because “they’re just kids.” Rather than actively trying to shape their children’s behaviour, these parents view themselves as resources for their children to use as they wish. • Rejecting/neglecting parents are low in warmth and control. referred to these parents as “uninvolved.” They put little effort into parenting and, often, are more focused on their own needs than the needs of their children. They may fail to set schedules for sleeping and eating, and react harshly to children’s advances or requests for attention. Often these parents have 30 • Students develop a self-concept by comparing themselves to personal (internal) standards and social (external) standards. • • Self-esteem: feeling concerning your worth • Theory of mind: develop at age 2 or 3 = An understanding that other people are people, too, with their own minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and perceptions. • With a developing theory of mind, children are increasingly able to understand that other people have different feelings and experiences, and therefore may have a different viewpoint or perspective. This perspective-taking abilitydevelops over time until it is quite sophisticated in adults. • Moral reasoning: The thinking process involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong • Distributive Justice: Beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group; follows a sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence. • Moral realism: Stage of development wherein children see rules as absolute. • Morality of cooperation: Stage of development wherein children realize that people make rules and people can change them. • Kohlberg’s theories of moral development: • He divided moral development into three levels: (1) preconventional, where judgment is based solely on a person’s own needs and perceptions; (2) conventional, where the expectations of society and law are taken into account; and (3) postconventional, where judgments are based on abstract, more personal principles of justice that are not necessarily defined by society’s laws. Each of these three levels is further divided into two stages Preconventional Level • Stage 1: Obedience Orientation—Obey rules to avoid punishments and bad consequences. • Stage 2: Rewards/Exchange Orientation—Right and wrong are determined by personal needs and wants—“If I want it, it is right.” Conventional Level 31 • Stage 3: Being Nice/Relationships Orientation—Being good means being nice and pleasing others. • Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation—Laws and authorities must be obeyed; the social system must be maintained. Postconventional (Principled) Level • Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation—The moral choice is determined by socially agreed upon standards—“the greatest good for the greatest number.” • Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation—There are universal principles of human dignity and social justice that individuals should uphold, no matter what the law or other people say. • Carol Gilligan: Morality of Caring • Self interests-> moral reasoning based on commintment-> specific individuals snd relationships -> morality based on the principles of responsibility and care for all people • More typical to women’s orientation to moral problem solving. • Agression-> 1. Instrumental agressions: shoving pushing to get what you want.2. Hostile agressions: inflicting intentional harm 3. Overt aggression: threats or physical attacks 4. Relational aggression: threatening or damaging social relationships. • Cheating, video games\agressive behavior, Moral behavior (modeling, self-concept and internalization), diversity in moral reasoning (culture) Slides Module 3 • Adolescence: sexual maturity; gender differences associated with early- or late-maturers • This is the Microsystem. In the next layer, the Mesosystem includes the interactions between all the elements in the Microsystem. For example, in the Microsystem, a child interacts with their parents and they also interact with their educator in daycare. In the Mesosystem, the parents and the daycare educators interact with each other, each bringing their perspectives to the interactions. Further, there is the Exosystem, which are all the social settings that directly or indirectly affect the individual at the centre. For example, your mother’s work schedule (Exosystem) may affect how often she can attend parent-teacher meetings, and to get to know your teachers (Mesosystem). Being bombarded by ‘sexy’ clothing in the media (Exosystem) may increase conflict between an adolescent and their parents (Microsystem). In the Macrosystem, our society’s beliefs and practices exert over-arching influences. For example, 32 the law that grants Parental Leave (Macrosystem) will affect the way in which a stay-at- home father is portrayed in the media (Exosystem), and in turn, affects 2 the parenting services in the neighbourhood (Mesosystem). We often have Mom-andTots groups. How about Parent- and-Tots groups that welcome fathers? • Adolescence and young adulthood are also critical periods for exploring one’s ethnic/racial identity and gender identity. In today’s society, many individuals are struggling to develop terminologies that describe who they are. • James Marcia focused on the important processes of exploration and commitment in adolescents’process of identity formation. His 4 categories of identity statuses each reflect a unique pattern of exploration and commitment. • In Identity Achievement, there is extensive exploration and commitment to pursuing the choices. • In the Moratorium, there is exploration with a delay in making commitments. • In the Identity Foreclosure, there is commitment, but little exploration. • In the Identity Diffusion, there is little exploration and little commitment. Quiz and Answers of Module 3 1) Which of the following parenting styles is characterized by highly controlling behaviour but low in worth and responsiveness? A) Authoritarian B) Authoritative C) Permissive D) Rejecting/Neglecting Answer: A Explanation: A) Authoritarian parents tent to be high in control and low in warmth and responsiveness, with the expectation that children follow their order without negotiation. They tend to be harsh and punitive in their discipline style. 2) Research has shown that students who watch others behaving aggressively A) become more aggressive. B) become more passive. C) do not change their behaviour. D) tolerate less aggression among peers. Answer: A Explanation: A) Studies of violence on television have shown that students who watch others behaving aggressively become more aggressive. Such findings reflect the powerful effects of modelling in the expression of aggression. 3) Adults who were rejected as children tend to have A) fewer problems than adults whose childhoods were without caring adults. B) friends who are socially competent and mature, even though their childhoods were 35 Module 4 ✓ What is intelligence and what is traditional, psychometric approach to intelligence? ✓ How do Gardner’s or Sternberg’s conceptions of intelligence differ from the practice of standardized intelligence testing? ✓ What are the basic characteristics of students with different exceptionalities; 1. Gifted and talented 2. Intellectual disabilities 3. Learning disabilities and Attention deficit\hyperactivity disorder 4. Autism Spectrum Disorder 5. Speech and language disorders ✓ What are inclusive philosophy and inclusive parties? Chapter 4 • Exceptional students: Students who have unusually high abilities in particular areas or disabilities that impact learning and may require special education or other services. • A disability is just what the word implies—an inability to do something specific such as see or walk. A handicap is defined as a disadvantage in certain situations. Some disabilities lead to handicaps, but not in all contexts • People-first language Students with learning disabilities NOT Learning disabled students Students receiving special education NOT Special education students A person with epilepsy NOT An epileptic A child with a physical disability NOT A crippled child Children diagnosed with autism NOT Autistic children or autistics • Intelligence: Ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world. • Today, psychologists generally agree that we can mathematically compute a common factor (g) across cognitive tests, but this computed factor is simply an indication or measure of general intelligence ; it is not general intelligence itself 36 • Fluid intelligence: Mental efficiency that is culture-free and nonverbal and is grounded in brain development. • Crystallized intelligence: Ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods. • Crystallized I. can increase throughout the lifespan because it includes learned skills and knowledge such as reading, facts, and how to hail a cab, make a quilt, or design a unit on symbolism in poetry • Theory of multiple intelligence Gardner Eight Intelligences INTELLIGENCE END STATES CORE COMPONENTS Logical- mathematical Scientist, Mathematician Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning. Linguistic Poet, Journalist Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language. Musical Composer, Violinist Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness. Spatial Navigator, Capacities to perceive the visual- 37 INTELLIGENCE END STATES CORE COMPONENTS Sculptor spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one’s initial perceptions. Bodily-kinesthetic Dancer, Athlete Abilities to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully. Interpersonal Therapist, Salesman Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people. Intrapersonal Person with detailed, accurate self-knowledge Access to one’s own feelings and the ability to discriminate among them and draw on them to guide behaviour; knowledge of one’s own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence. Naturalist Botanist, Farmer, Hunter Abilities to recognize plants and animals, to make distinctions in the natural world, to understand systems and define categories (perhaps even categories of intelligence). • He says there might be more (like spiritual, understanding life etc) • The eight intelligences are not independent; there are correlations among the abilities. In fact, logical-mathematical and spatial intelligences are highly correlated 40 FACET TYPES OF LEARNERS DEFINITION Cognitive style Visualizer Thinks using images and visual information Verbalizer Thinks using words and verbal information Learning preference Visual learner Prefers instruction using pictures Verbal learner Prefers instruction using words • Difference between verbal\visual learners • Gifted students: bright, creative and talented student • Three-part conception of giftedness: above-average general ability, a high level of creativity, and a high level of task commitment or motivation to achieve • Giftedness in mathematics, music, and visual arts appears to be associated with superior visual-spatial abilities and enhanced development of the right side of the brain • Bored\frustrated\ impatient\ waiting (no one is keeping up with their levels and understands them. Waiting for subjects to change) • Because they are goal-directed and focused, these students may seem stubborn and uncooperative • Recognizing gifted students: • Who can easily manipulate abstract symbol systems such as mathematics? • Who can concentrate for long periods of time on personal interests? • Who remembers easily? • Who developed language and reading early (as did Latoya, described at the beginning of this section)? • Who is curious and has many interests? • Whose work is original and creative? 41 • Prefer to work alone, have a keen sense of justice and fairness, be energetic and intense, form strong commitments to friends—often older students—and struggle with perfectionism. • Acceleration: Social and emotional adjustment does not appear to be impaired. Students who are gifted tend to prefer the company of older playmates and may be miserably bored if kept with children of their own age • Learn better with kids of high-ability, not mix-abilities • Self-concepts decrease (little fish in big pond concept) • Students with learning challenges; • Learning disabilities: Problem with acquisition and use of language; may show up as difficulty with reading, writing, reasoning, or math. • “Learning Disabilities” refer to a number of disorders which may affect the acquisition, organization, retention, understanding or use of verbal or nonverbal information. These disorders affect learning in individuals who otherwise demonstrate at least average abilities essential for thinking and/or reasoning. As such, learning disabilities are distinct from global intellectual deficiency. • Learning disabilities may also involve difficulties with organizational skills, social perception, social interaction, and perspective taking. • The most common characteristics are specific difficulties in one or more academic areas; poor coordination; problems paying attention; hyperactivity and impulsivity; problems organizing and interpreting visual and auditory information; disorders of thinking, memory, speech, and hearing; and difficulties making and keeping friends Reading Problems of Students with Learning Disabilities Anxiety around reading • Reluctant to read • Cries or acts out to avoid reading • Seems tense when reading Difficulty recognizing words or letters • Inserts an incorrect word, substitutes or skips words • Reverses letters or numbers—48 for 24, for example 42 • Mispronounces words—”cape” for “cope” • Mixes up order of words in sentences: “I can bikes ride” for “I can ride bikes.” • Reads very slowly and with little fluency—starts and stops often Poor vocabulary skills • Can’t read new vocabulary words • Has limited vocabulary Difficulty with understanding or remembering what was read • Can’t recall basic facts from the reading • Can’t make inferences or identify the main idea • Learned helplessness: The expectation, based on previous experiences involving lack of control, that all of one’s efforts will lead to failure. • Hyperactivity: Behaviour disorder marked by atypical, excessive restlessness and inattentiveness. • Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Current term for disruptive behaviour disorders marked by overactivity, excessive difficulty sustaining attention, or impulsiveness. • Characteristics: • INATTENTION: doesn’t pay close attention to class activities, details of work, teacher directions, class discussions; can’t organize work, notebooks, desk, assignments; easily distracted and forgetful • HYPERACTIVITY: fidgets and squirms; can’t stay in assigned seat; can’t move slowly, seems driven by a motor to go fast; talks excessively • IMPULSIVITY: Blurts out answers; has trouble waiting for a turn; interrupts • Language disorders • Speech impairment: Inability to produce sounds effectively for speaking. • Articulation disorders: Any of a variety of pronunciation difficulties. • Stuttering: Repetitions, prolongations, and hesitations that block flow of speech. • Voicing problems: Speech impairments involving inappropriate pitch, quality, loudness, or intonation. 45 • It is influenced by both hereditary factors and educational/environmental factors . • Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence: 10 types of intelligence • Based on his theory, the design of school should change to develop these abilities. • Important in inclusion education- develop individual potential • Logical- mathematical- linguistics (typical school related intelligence) – shift the educational system • Robert Sternbergs’ Triarchic theory of intelligence: intelligence is a dynamic process of problem-solving within one’s cultural environment. • Theory postulates that individuals can use their cognitive processes to develop three kinds of successful intelligence that can help them solve problems in various situations. 1. Analytic intelligence is the ability to solve relatively familiar problems. Our past experience and previous learning contribute to the development of analytic intelligence. 2. Creative intelligence is the ability to solve novel problems using insight and automaticity. Being exposed to new problems, experiencing challenges, and practicing to develop automaticity are clearly important for the development of creative intelligence. 3. Practical intelligence is the ability to capitalize on one’s strengths, and to choose the environment where one’s abilities are valued. Choosing an optimal environment or condition to display your skills is likely to lead to success. • Psychometric Approach to intelligence: IQ test : is a mathematical ratio between one’s mental age, and actual (or chronological) age. For example, the closer my mental age matches my real age, the more likely I will have an “average IQ”, which means I am intelligent. If my mental age is far above my real age, then I am likely to have a high IQ, or in other words, be “very intelligent”. 46 There are 3 versions of this IQ test, targeting different age groups. The “IQ test” is actually a battery of tests that are related to 4 clusters of abilities: • • Verbal Comprehension • Abstract reasoning • Social reasoning • Knowledge of word meanings o Ability to retrieve word labels o General world knowledge • • Working Memory • Recall numbers/digits • Recall numbers/digits backwards • Reorganize and recall a series of numbers and letters o Solve arithmetic problems without paper and pencil • • Perceptual Reasoning • Abstract reasoning • Ability to analyze and synthesize geometric patterns o Ability to understand serial relationships • Ability to detect relevant details • • Psychomotor Speed • Ability to copy symbols accurately and quickly o Ability to scan and detect visual details • Speed of eye-hand coordination Language • Delayed onset of speech-and-language acquisition Observable Behaviours Areas of Challenges 47 • effects of IQ on learning, may researchers also believe that learning styles and preferences also affect students’ learning. Zhang and Sternberg’s research summarized learning styles and preferences into 3 traditions. • In the cognitive-centered styles, individuals are identified as either reflective or impulsive. Some people take the time to think through before they act or respond, others act immediately and intuitively. • In the personality-centered styles, individuals are extroverted or introverted, and thinking-oriented or feeling-oriented. Someone who is extroverted is likely to prefer to work in groups, give oral presentations, etc., while someone introverted might prefer to work individually. A thinking-oriented person will likely gather a lot of information, weigh the pros and cons of their choices, and examine statistical data before choosing a solution path, while a feeling-oriented person might go by “gut” feelings. • In the activity-centered styles, individuals assess the combination of cognition and personality as they approach a learning task. • Discussion of learning style and preference do not have strong research support, with the exception of one area: Richard Mayer’s work on visual vs. verbal learners. • Think of yourself as a learner: • Do you prefer to look at graphs and diagrams that illustrate a concept? • Do you prefer to read written information about the concept? • Do you maybe prefer to have visual and verbal input at the same time, such as watching someone demonstrate and explain as they teach a concept? • a clear distinction between what is a dis ability, and what is a handicap. • A disability means that there is an inability to do something specific. For example, not being able to read is a disability, just as not being able to walk is a disability. • A handicap refers to a disadvantage in certain situations. For example, if I cannot read, I may be handicapped when I am trying to order food from a menu in a restaurant. If I were in school, I might be handicapped because I cannot read texts and instructions. • Autism spectrum disorder: 50 Answer: A Explanation: A) Because Bill is bright and popular, mental retardation and emotional disturbance would be ruled out. His reading difficulty also rules out being a student who is gifted. Moreover, Bill's problem with reading suggests that he is a student with a specific learning disability 8) What type of intervention appears to be the most successful in helping students with attention deficits? A) Behaviour management strategies B) Cognitive management training C) Cooperative learning strategies D) Socialization skills training Answer: A Explanation: A) Behaviour management strategies (e.g., PBS) seem to be the most effective in helping students with attention deficits. Such strategies supplement (or replace) drug therapy by teaching students strategies for learning. 9) Which one of the following situations is considered a language difference rather than a language disorder? A) Delayed language development B) Failing to adapt language to the context C) Interrupted language development D) Speaking in a strong dialect Answer: D Explanation: D) Language differences primarily represent variations due to experiences in a particular society or culture and are not necessarily a disorder. An example would be speaking in a strong dialect. 10) Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of students with developmental disabilities? A) They had significant limitations in cognitive abilities and adaptive behaviour. B) Although learning at a slower rate, they are unlikely to reach a point at which their learning plateaus. C) They have difficulties maintaining skills without ongoing practice. D) They may have difficulties combining or integrating multiple skills, such as doing the laundry. Answer: B Explanation: B) All statements except B are true of students with developmental disabilities. These individuals learn at a far slower rate than other students, and may reach a point at which their learning levels off or plateaus. 11) Which disorder is most likely to have a lack of theory of mind associated with it? A) Articulation Disorder B) Autism Spectrum Disorder C) ADHD D) Tic Disorder Answer: B Explanation: B) One current explanation for Autism Spectrum Disorders is that children with these disorders lack a theory of mind. Theory of mind refers to an understanding that they and other people might have minds, thought, and emotions. Therefore, students who these disorders may have difficulty explaining their own behaviours and why others 51 might think, feel, and behave differently. 52 Module 5 ✓ What do these terms refer to: culture, ethnicity and race? ✓ What factors contribute to the formation of gender roles and gender identity? ✓ How do culture, language diversity, gender and socioeconomic status affect learning? How do culturally-sensitive teachers address these issues? ✓ What do teachers need to know about their use of language when teaching ➢ Males and females ➢ First nation people ✓ When is a good time and what are effective strategies for fostering second- language acquisition? Chapter 5 & 6 Milestones in Early Childhood Language and Ways to Encourage Development AGE RANGE MILESTONE STRATEGIES TO ENCOURAGE DEVELOPMENT Between 2 and 3 Identifies body parts; calls self “me” instead of name; combines nouns and verbs; has a 450-word vocabulary; uses short sentences; matches 3–4 colours; knows big and little; likes to hear same story repeated; forms some plurals; answers “where” questions • Help the child listen and follow instructions by playing simple games. • Repeat new words over and over. • Describe what you are doing, planning, thinking. • Have the child deliver simple messages for you. • Show the child you understand what he or she says by answering, smiling, and nodding your head. • Expand what the child says. Child: “more juice.” You say, “Chris wants more juice.” Between 3 and 4 Can tell a story; sentence length of 4–5 words; vocabulary about 1000 words; knows last name, name of street, several nursery rhymes • Talk about how objects are the same or different. • Help the child to tell 55 • Girls are more likely to cooperate and to talk about caring, whereas boys are more competitive and talk about rights and justice • Proponents of the immersion/fast transition approach believe that English ought to be introduced as early and as intensively as possible; • The first step is to create a classroom community that is caring and respectful. • As a teacher, you need to learn the strengths of these students and acknowledge their abilities —and build on their knowledge. • CREATE LEARNING ACTIVITIES THAT PROMOTE SUCCESS IN READING AND WRITING • MAKE SURE STUDENTS HAVE PLENTY OF TIME TO PRACTISE AND GET CAREFUL, TARGETED CORRECTIONS. • CONNECT TEACHING TO RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE FROM STUDENTS’ LIVES. • ACTIVELY INVOLVE LEARNERS. • USE DIFFERENT GROUPING STRATEGIES. • PROVIDE NATIVE LANGUAGE SUPPORT. • INVOLVE FAMILY AND COMMUNITY MEMBERS. • HOLD HIGH EXPECTATIONS FOR ALL STUDENTS, AND COMMUNICATE THESE EXPECTATIONS CLEARLY • Culture: The knowledge, rules, traditions, attitudes, and values that guide the behaviour of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment. • Socioeconomic status: Relative standing in the society based on income, power, background, and prestige. • Ethnicity: A cultural heritage shared by a group of people 56 • Race: A group of people who share common biological traits that are seen as self-defining by the people of the group. • Prejudice is a rigid and irrational generalization—a prejudgment—about an entire category of people. Prejudice is made up of beliefs, emotions, and tendencies toward particular actions. • Gender identity is a person’s self-identification as male or female. Gender-role behaviours are those behaviours and characteristics that the culture associates with each gender, and sexual orientation involves the person’s choice of a sexual partner. • Word gender usually refers to traits and behaviours that a particular culture judges to be appropriate for men and for women. In contrast, sex refers to biological differences • sexual identity is a complicated construction of beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours • FEELING DIFFERENT—Beginning around age 6, the child may be less interested in the activities of other children who are the same sex. Some children may find this difference troubling and fear being “found out.” Others do not experience these anxieties. • FEELING CONFUSED—In adolescence, as they feel attractions for peers of the same sex, students may be confused, upset, lonely, and unsure of what to do. They may lack role models and may try to change themselves by becoming involved in activities and dating patterns that fit heterosexual stereotypes. • ACCEPTANCE—As young adults, many individuals sort through sexual orientation issues and identify themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. They may or may not make their sexual orientation public, but might share the information with a few friends. • Gender roles are expectations about how males and females should behave—about what is masculine and what is feminine • Schools often foster gender bias curriculum: Different views of males and females, often favouring one gender over the other. • TEACHERS SHOULD DO: • CHECK TO SEE IF TEXTBOOKS AND OTHER MATERIALS YOU ARE USING PRESENT AN HONEST VIEW OF THE OPTIONS OPEN TO BOTH MALES AND FEMALES. 57 • WATCH FOR ANY UNINTENDED BIASES IN YOUR OWN CLASSROOM PRACTICES. • LOOK FOR WAYS IN WHICH YOUR SCHOOL MAY BE LIMITING THE OPTIONS OPEN TO MALE OR FEMALE STUDENTS. • USE GENDER-FREE LANGUAGE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE. • PROVIDE ROLE MODELS. • MAKE SURE ALL STUDENTS HAVE A CHANCE TO DO COMPLEX, TECHNICAL WORK. • Multicultural education: Education that promotes equity in the schooling of all students Elements of resilient classroom: There are two strands of elements that bind students to their classroom community. One strand emphasizes the self-agency of students—their capacity to set and pursue goals. This includes academic self-efficacy, self-control, and self- determination. The second strand emphasizes caring and connected relationships with the teacher, peers, and the home. Slides Module 5 • Research shows that children who are simultaneously exposed to two languages at the same time process both languages in the left - hemisphere of the brain, and they are likely to experience more cognitive and academic successes. • It takes an average of 2 to 3 years for students to acquire conversational skills in their second language. Mastery of an academic language takes longer than acquiri ng proficiency in face - to - face communication. It may take 5 to 10 years before students have fully mastered academic language competencies. 60 children’s oral language skills plays an important role alongside code skills in predicting reading in the transition to school. 4. Scott, who is a grade 12 student and a native English speaker, is starting to learn French. According to the text, which activity will likely be the most difficult for him to successfully engage in? A) watching a television program in French B) having a conversation in French with his friend Richard C) reading a history book written in French D) listening to the news on a French radio station Answer: C Explanation: C) It takes students about two to three years in a good-quality program to be able to communicate face-to-face in a second language, but mastering decontextualized, academic language skills takes longer (five to ten years). Therefore, even if Scott engages a friend in conversation, he is likely to have a great deal of difficulty with complex school work in that language (see Bialystok, 2001). 5. The rules and traditions that guide the behaviour of a group comprise its A) culture. B) ethnic heritage. C) racial identity. D) social status. Answer: A Explanation: A) Culture is defined as the knowledge, rules, traditions, attitudes and values that guide the behaviour of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment. 7. Researchers generally believe that differences between ethnic groups in cognitive abilities occur primarily as a result of A) biases inherent in most standardized tests. B) different experiences in and out of school. C) different levels of motivation among the groups. D) natural abilities of the various groups. Answer: B Explanation: B) Researchers generally believe that differences between ethnic groups in cognitive abilities mainly occur as a result of different experiences in and out of school. For example, minority groups must contend with fewer resources and discriminating practices. These factors make it more difficult for them to be successful in school compared with white students. 8. An important cultural difference regarding First Nations students suggests which of these teaching practices is most appropriate? A) Focus on motivation first. B) Try to have learning activities where visual-motor and spatial skills are used. C) Employ monolingual educational strategies. D) Try to make students at least semi-lingual in their second language. Answer: B Explanation: B) Aboriginal cultures train and reward visual-motor and spatial skills, which is contrary to the dominant culture where verbal skills are rewarded. 9. Kate is able to thrive in school in spite of difficulty circumstances that might otherwise 61 threaten her development. She would be considered A) an exception. B) a resilient child. C) a member of a visible minority. D) a survivor of the system. Answer: B Explanation: B) Kate is an example of resilience. Resilience involves the ability to adapt successfully in spite of difficulty circumstances and threats to development. These students have good interpersonal skills, confidence in their own ability to learn, pride in their ethnicity, and high expectations (Borman & Overman, 2004; Lee, 2005). 10. Which of the following is a research-based characteristic of schools that successfully serve diverse groups of students? A) High expectations for student achievement B) Emphasis on extra-curricular activities C) Infrequent evaluations of student progress D) Focus on formative assessment Answer: A Explanation: A) Pressley and colleagues (2004) describe several research-based characteristics of schools (and teachers) that successfully serve diverse groups of students. Among having high expectations for student achievement, these schools have strong administrative leadership, frequent evaluation of student progress, emphasis on academics, and employ excellent classroom management in most classrooms. 11. Over the past decade, an explanation offered for the growing gap between the reading of students in poverty versus students from wealthier homes is due to A) increased television viewing among students with lower SES. B) more attention paid to wealthier students by their teachers. C) more positive role models available among students of higher SES. D) children from poorer homes losing ground over the summer. Answer: D Explanation: The growing gap between the reading levels of poor and wealthier students has been recently attributed to summer setbacks. Children from poorer homes lose ground over the summer. One study suggested that the four months of summer vacations between grades 2 and 6 accounted for 80 percent of the achievement differences between poor and advantaged students (Allington & McGills, 2003, 2008). 12. In order to experience the positive effects of teaching in a single-sex classroom on student learning, which of the following demanding conditions must be met? A) Reinforce positive gender stereotypes of the group you are teaching. B) Realize that there are no boy- or girl-specific teaching strategies (Good teaching is good teaching). C) Create out of class opportunities for boys and girls to interact socially. D) Bring in role models of the opposite sex as guest speakers to your class whenever possible. Answer: B Explanation: B) Supported by the work of Younger and Warrington (2006), teachers must ultimately realize that there are no boy- or girl-specific teaching strategies. Good teaching is good teaching! Regrouping students by sex does not make teaching easier and may in fact 62 make class management more challenging. Module 6 ✓ What are the basic premises of Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Skinner’s Operant Conditioning? ✓ What are the different schedules of reinforcement and how do they affect learning? ✓ How can behavioural theories be applied to: ➢ Individuals vs groups ➢ Learning complex tasks and skills ➢ Helping students with significant challenges ➢ Promote self-management? Chapter 7 • Behavioural learning theories: Explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviours. • Contiguity: Association of two events because of repeated pairing. • Stimulus: Event that activates behaviour. • Response: Observable reaction to a stimulus. • Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological responses such as fear, increased muscle tension, salivation, or sweating. • These sometimes are called respondents because they are automatic responses to stimuli. • At this point, the sound of the tuning fork was a neutral stimulus because it brought forth no salivation. • Then Pavlov fed the dog. The response was salivation. The food was an unconditioned stimulus (US) because no prior training or “conditioning” was needed to establish the natural connection between food and salivation. • The salivation was an unconditioned response (UR) , again because it was elicited automatically—no conditioning required. 65 • If you were given an extra work sheet to do on the weekend because you were talkative in class with your friends, that is presentation punishment, because you are given something undesirable (doing extra work sheets) in the hope that you will not chat in c lass again (an undesirable behaviour, according to the teacher). • In removal punishment , something that you like is removed in the hope that you will not repeat the undesirable behaviour. For example, your recess time is taken away (something that you like) because you chatted in class (an undesirable behaviour). • In presentation punishment , something undesirable is given (extra work) in the hope of suppressing an undesirable behaviour (chatting in class). In removal punishment , something desirable is taken away (going out for recess) in the hope of suppressing an undesirable behaviour (chatting in class). • Difference between CUE and Prompt : A cue is an antecedent stimulus just before a particular behaviour is to take place. A prompt is an additional cue following the first cue. Make sure the environmental stimulus that you want to become a cue occurs immediately before the prompt you are using, so students will learn to respond to the cue and not rely only on the prompt. Then, fade the prompt as soon as possible so students do not become dependent on it. • Applied behaviour analysis: The application of behavioural learning principles to understand and change behaviour • Group • Group Consequences: Rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct. • Good behaviour game: Arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for breaking agreed-upon rules of good behaviour. • A contingency contract program, the teacher draws up an individual contract with each student, describing exactly what the student must do to earn a particular privilege or reward. • A token reinforcement system can help solve this problem by allowing all students to earn tokens for both academic work and positive classroom behaviour. • goal-setting phase is very important in self-management • Higher standards tend to lead to higher performance 66 • Steos in ApppliedBehavious analysis: The steps are: (1) Clearly specify the behaviour to be changed and note the current level; (2) plan a specific intervention using antecedents, consequences, or both; and (3) keep track of the results, and modify the plan if necessary • Shaping helps students develop new responses a little at a time, so it is useful for building complex skills, working toward difficult goals, and increasing persistence, endurance, accuracy, or speed Slides Module 6 • praise - and - ignore approach to highlight desirable behaviours, while ignoring some of the undesirable behaviours. When praising students, i t is important to make sure that there is a clear contingency between the praise and the behaviour. • Applied Behavioural Analysis . It involves 3 steps: • First , we have to identify what has to be changed, and determine a baseline level. For instance, if Pierre is always getting out of his seat and disturbing others, the behaviour that has to change is “ getting out of his seat ” . To determine the baseline, we would observe him in a series of classes, and record how often he gets out of his seat within one period. • Second , we set up an intervention plan. For instance, to encourage Pierre to remain seated, you may use a variable interval schedule of reinforcement , such as you set a beeper to sound 6 times randomly over one period. Each time the beeper goes off, you check if Pierre is staying seated or not. If he is seated, you walk over to give him a gentle pat on the shoulder (positive reinforcement). • Third , you do this over the course of, let’s say, one week. You keep track of how many times he is displaying the desired behaviour (i.e., staying seated). • Positive practice is a good way to correct erro rs. If Paul always shouts out answers, we could prompt him to raise his hand, and then listen to what he has to say. We can repeat this several times in a row, so that Paul gets the idea that raising his hand before giving an answer is an appropriate behave • The ultimate goal of behavioural change is to reinforce students’ ability to manage their own behaviours. Set specific, attainable goals. students are encouraged to monitor their progress It is very important that students also learn to self-reinforce. • Social isolation is often called time out . It is a removal punishment . 67 • Response cost is like a fine. It can be considered a presentation punishment (e.g., you got a speeding ticket), or a removal punishment (e.g., you lose money when you pay a fine) • Reprimanding students is indeed a form of presentation punishment , but it can be effective when it is delivered in a calm, neutral tone — and clearly identifies that the behaviour is undesirable, not the person. Quiz and Answers Module 6 1) During music class, Lisa enthusiastically sings aloud with her class, but the teacher comments, "Lisa, please...you sound like an owl in a torture chamber." Lisa turns bright red. The next week she feels ill when it is time to go to music class again. Feeling anxiety at the prospect of going to music class is an example of A) an unconditioned stimulus. B) classical conditioning. C) cognitive learning. D) social learning. Answer: B Explanation: B) Lisa's reaction most clearly illustrates classical conditioning. Evidently, she is now associating music class with embarrassment due to the earlier pairing of her singing (and music class) with the teacher's public criticism of her performance. 2) In an experiment, an electric can opener is used to open a can, and no salivation by the subject is detected. After a number of pairings between the can opener's operation and food, any time the can opener is used, the subject salivates. The conditioned response in this study is the A) can opener. B) food. C) salivation to the can opener. D) salivation to the food. Answer: C Explanation: C) The conditioned response (CS) in this experiment would be salivation to the can opener. Prior to the pairing of the neutral stimulus, can opener, with the unconditioned stimulus, food, this response did not occur. It needed to be learned or "conditioned." 3) A consequence is defined by Skinner as a reinforcer or a punisher depending on whether it A) increases or decreases the frequency of the behaviour that it follows. B) is designed to promote desirable behaviour or suppress undesirable behaviour. C) is pleasurable or uncomfortable for the subject receiving the consequence. D) occurs antecedent to or as a consequence of the behaviour. Answer: A Explanation: A) According to Skinner, whether a stimulus is a reinforcer or a punisher depends on whether the stimulus increases or decreases the behaviour that it follows. If the consequence increases the behaviour that it follows, it is a reinforcer. If the consequence decreases or suppresses the behaviour, the consequence is a punishment. 4) Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behaviour exemplifies A) negative reinforcement. B) positive reinforcement.