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Developmental Psych Final Exam Questions with
Answers
- What is language?: -form of communication (spoken, written, signed) based on system of symbols -consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying/combining them -highly ordered and organized
- What is infinite generativity?: the ability to produce an endless # of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules
- Phonology is the...: sound system of a language and sounds that are used and how they're combined
- Morphology (morpheme=unit) is the...: rule system that governs how words are formed in a language
- Syntax is the: system that involves the way words are combined to form accept- able phrases and sentences
- Semantics involves: the system that involves the meaning of words and sen- tences
- pragmatics is: the system of using appropriate conversation and knowledge of how to effectively use language in context
- language in infancy: Babbling and other vocalizations: to practice making sounds, communicate, and attract attention
- Sequence of language development in infancy: crying, cooing, babbling (dur- ing first year)
- gestures in infancy: pointing (8-12 m)
- recognizing sounds in infancy: can make distinctions among sounds
and recognize when they change (6 m), understand words long before they can produce them
- First words in infancy: 2 word utterances: 18-24 m, telegraphic speech (ex: see doggie)
- telegraphic language: early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs, no grammatical context
- language development in early childhood, toddlers: -toddlers: 3, 4, 5 word combinations, transition from simple sentences to more complex
- language development in early childhood, preschoolers: more sensitive to sounds of spoken words, become more capable of producing sounds, produce all vowels and most consonants
- how many world do children learn every hour: 1
- what can older children discuss?: young children engage in extended dis- course and begin to discuss things that aren't here and now as they get older, as they get older increased sensitivity to needs of others in convo, change speech style to suit the situation
- writing starts with: early scribbles (2-3 yrs)
- at 4 years old a child can: print own name
- children might: reverse b and d and p and q in early childhood not indicative of learning disability
- at 5 a child can: reproduce letters and copy short words
- william's syndrome: genetic birth disorder w unique combo of expressive ver- bal skills, extremely low IQ, limited visuospatial skills and motor control, children are storytellers who provide highly
expressive narratives, cannot live independent lives, good verbal ability but poor reading and other cognitive skills
- emotions: a feeling or affect that occurs when someone is in a state or an interaction that's important to them, especially to their well being, can be positive or negative, influenced by nature/nurture, influenced by social situations and rela- tionships
- biology of emotions: nervous system, limbic system, brain stem, early emer- gence of emotions from infancy, maturation in cerebral cortex (increases self regu- lation and lowers mood swings)
- emotions in infancy: -primary vs self conscious emotions -primary emotions: present in humans + animals, first 6 mo of human development, ex - surprise, joy, anger, sad -permits coordinated interactions w caregivers & begins emotional bond -infants modify emotions based on parents -interactions should be reciprocal or synchronous -sensitive, responsive parents help infant grow emotionally -crying: basic, anger, & pain -smiling: social skill, reflexive (during sleep, not a response), social (response to stimulus) -fear: stranger anxiety, separation
- emotional regulation & coping: -during 1st year, infant learns to inhibit/mini- mize the intensity and duration of emotional reactions -caregivers' actions influence infants neurobiological regulation of emotions, sooth- ing lowers stress hormones -infants can be distracted to reduce arousal
-toddlers can use language to define emotion states -soothing: some argue it rewards crying, others believe it builds bond
- emotions in early childhood: -2-4 yrs: increase terminology around emotion, learn abt causes and consequences of feelings -4-5 yrs: increased ability to reflect on emotions, understand that the same event can produce dif emotions for dif ppl, manage emotions to meet social standards -5 yrs: accurately determine emotions caused by challenging circumstances, de- scribe strategies to cope w everyday stress
- attachment: -infancy: internal working model of attachment, mental model of the caregiver, their relationship, and the self as deserving of nurturing care -influences responses to other ppl -link btwn attachment and subsequent emotion understanding, conscious develop- ment, & self-concept
- securely attached: babies use caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment
- insecure avoidant: babies show insecurity by avoiding the mother
- insecure resistant: babies often cling to caregiver, then resist by fighting against the closeness, by kicking or pushing away
- insecure disorganized: babies are disorganized and disoriented
- constructivist approach: learner centered approach that emphasizes: -the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge -understanding w teacher's meaningful guidance and careful monitoring -children exploring their world, discovering knowledge, reflection, critical
thinking -collaboration w peers -against passive learning, memorization, etc.
- direct institution approach: structured, teacher centered approach: -teacher direction & control -high expectation for students -max academic time -keep negative affect to minimum -attention to content such as science, math
- state mandated testing: government demanded increased accountability from schools: -state mandated testing, which lead to criticism because teachers spent much class time teaching to the test -lead to drilling students and having them practice isolated facts -comes at the expense of teaching that focuses on thinking skills, which students need for life success
- child-centered kindergarten: -nurturing -emphasizes the education of the whole child and concern for their physical, cogni- tive, and socio emotional development -instruction organized around child's needs, interests, and learning styles -emphasis on the process of learning, rather than what is learned 3 principles:
- each child follows a unique developmental pattern
- young children learn best thru firsthand experiences w ppl and
materials
- play is important to child's development
- Montessori approach: -Child is given freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities -some say it neglects socioemotional development and restricts imaginative play
- developmentally appropriate and inappropriate education: DAP: based on knowledge of typical development of children w/in an age span as well as child's uniqueness (active, hands on, socioemotional development, individual develop- ment) DIP: relies on abstract paper and pencil activities presented to large groups
- project head start: -Compensatory education designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for school success -positive influence of quality early childhood programs on both the cognitive and social worlds of disadvantaged young children
- cultural differences in education: -programs and emphasis on the education of the whole child popular in western early childhood doesn't exist in many develop- ing countries -economic pressures and parents' belief that education should be academically rigorous have produced teacher centered rather than child centered curriculums in most developing countries
- elementary school: -from home child to school child, there are new roles and obligations
-children develop new standards, ideas, & relationships
- transition to middle school: -puberty and body image concerns -formal operational thought & changes in social cognition -increased responsibility and decreased dependence on parents -change to larger, more impersonal school structure-1 teacher to many -larger more heterogenous set of peers -increased focus on achievement and performance leads to "top-dog" phenomenon: from most powerful in elementary to lowest status in middle benefits: feel grown up, more subjects, more time w friends, independence
- Effective Schools for Young Adolescents: Develop smaller communities that lessen impersonality of middle schools Lower student-counselor ratios to 10-to-1 Involve parents and community leaders Integrate several disciplines in a flexible curriculum Boost students' health and fitness with more programs Provide public health care
- high school: -expectations for success and standards are too low -foster passivity -many students graduate w low level of skills or drop out
- extracurricular activities: linked to higher grades, lower drop out rates, higher college rates, higher self esteem, etc.
- differences in school achievement causes: -dif approaches to
education and teaching -changes at school during development -drop out rates -SES and ethnicity -learning difficulties -motivation
- SES and Ethnicity in Schools: barriers include: -parents don't set high educational standards -parents are incapable of reading to them -parents can't afford educational materials such as field trips, books, supplies -malnourishment -might live in areas of high crime -schools are better & higher funded in higher income areas
- learning disabilities: -disorders found in children of normal intelligence who have difficulties in learning specific skills such as processing language or grasping mathematical concepts -dyslexia (reading & spelling), dysgraphia (handwriting), dyscalculia (math)
- extrinsic motivation: involves external incentives such as rewards and punish- ments
- intrinsic motivation: -a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake -cognitive approaches stress the importance of intrinsic motivation -self determination
- sustained attention: -the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time -requires effort and becomes more important as work, school, tasks get more difficult
- mastery motivation: task oriented; concentrate on learning strategies and process of achievement rather than the outcome
- helpless orientation: seem trapped by the experience of difficulty, and they attribute their difficulty to lack of ability
- performance orientation: focused on winning, rather than achievement out- come, and believe that happiness will come from winning
- cognitive engagement and self responsibility: -emphasizes the importance of creating learning environments that encourage students to become cognitively engaged & take responsibility for their learning -get students to become motivated to expend the effort to persist and master ideas rather than simply doing enough work just to get by -embed subject matter content and skills learning within meaningful contexts, espe- cially real world situations that mesh w students' interests
- mindset: cognitive view individuals develop for themselves: fixed - believe their qualities are set in stone and cannot change growth - qualities can change and improve thru their effort -influences whether they'll be optimistic or pessimistic
-shapes goals and how much effort will go into goals -affect achievement in school, sports, etc -influenced by parents, teachers, coaches mindset
- self-efficacy: the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes -eagerly work at learning tasks -expend more effort and persist longer -confidence influenced by parents' self-efficacy
- expectations: children's motivation and performance are influenced by expec- tations of parents and teachers
- goal setting, planning, and self monitoring: -self efficacy and achievement improve when ppl set goals that are specific, proximal, and challenging -self regulatory: forethought, performance, self reflection -delaying gratification
- purpose: an intention to accomplish something meaningful to oneself and con- tribute something to the world beyond the self
- cross-cultural comparisons in schools: america did poor, asian countries score highest: -more time in school -more time teaching math -more days in school per yr -higher expectations for kids -american parents believe in innate ability rather than effort
-more involvement in education
- cognition & emotion in family process: -parents' cognition -beliefs -values abt their parental role -how parents perceive, organize, understand their children's behaviors & beliefs -children's social competence is linked to parents' emotional lives & sensitivity -children learn emotional expression thru parents'
- emotion-coaching parents: monitor their children's emotions, view child's neg- ative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in in labeling emotions, coach them in how to effectively deal w emotions
- emotion-dismissing parents: view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions
- parenting: -interpersonal skills and intense emotional demands -passed on generationally -two parents may differ on methods
- Parental Roles and the Timing of Parenthood: -based on economic situation and timing -mixed emotions & romanticized view -tendency to have fewer children -age when ppl have children is increasing
- Adapting parenting to developmental changes in children: -children change and grow and have very dif needs at dif times in their lives -parents must adapt
-baby places new restrictions on partners -couples had more pos experiences before baby
- parenting in infancy & early childhood: -early infancy: heavy focus on routine caregiving - feeding, changing diapers, bathing, and soothing -later: non caregiving activities - play, visual vocal exchanges, managing infant's behavior -early childhood: focus on modesty, bedtime, temper control, fighting w sibs & peers, eating, dressing, attention seeking -age 7: chores, self-entertainment, monitoring children's lives outside of school
- parenting in middle & late childhood: -parents spend less time w kids -supporting and stimulating academic achievement -value on education affects child's performance -influence extracurricular activities -less physical discipline -control transferred from parent to child: gradual, produces co regulation -general supervision & control, but child engages in moment to moment self regu- lation -major shift to autonomy: age 12+
- Parents as Managers of Children's Lives: -parents manage children's oppor- tunities, monitor their lives, social initiators and arrangers -parent must be effective manager: finds info, makes contacts, structures choices, provides guidance -being proactive and child proofing environment so infants are safe
-using corrective methods when infants engage in undesirable behaviors -increased corrective feedback and discipline for toddlers -concern that too much discipline could be abusive
- parental monitoring in childhood & adolescence: -supervising adolescent's choices of social settings, activities, and friends -adolescents' management of their parents' access to info (how much they lie about their activities) -more disclosure to parents is linked to positive adolescent achievement and adjust- ment -family management practices are related positively to students' grades and self-re- sponsibility, and negatively to school-related probs -maintaining structured family environment, such dinner together, homework, bed- time routines, etc
- authoritarian parenting: -restrictive, punitive style where parents exhort the child to follow their directions and respect their work and effort -firm limits and control, little verbal exchange -children are often unhappy, fearful, anxious, weak communicators
- authoritative parenting: -encourages children to be independent but still places limits & controls on their actions -extensive verbal give & take allowed, parents are warm and nurturing -parents show pleasure & support in response to children's constructive behavior
- neglectful parenting: -parent is uninvolved in child's life -children believe other aspects of parents' lives are more important than
them -children are often socially incompetent, have poor self control, don't handle inde- pendence well
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- indulgent parenting: -parents are highly involved w children but place few demands or controls on them -let children do what they want -children don't learn to control their own behavior & always expect to get their way -children rarely learn respect for others & have difficulty controlling their behavior -children are often: domineering, egocentric, noncompliant, bad at peer relations
- punishment: -corporal punishment associated w immediate compliance and aggression from children, depression, juvenile delinquency -presents out of control models for handling stress -children imitate behavior -tells children what not to do rather than what to do -can instill rage, fear, avoidance -can be abusive -better to reason w child, time out
- autonomy & attachment: -teenagers want to be w peers rather than parents & show that their successes are their own -aquired thru appropriate adult reactions to their desire for control
-adolescents gradually learn to make mature decisions on their own -boys are often given more independence -secure attachment involves positive peer relations and development of the adoles- cent's emotion regulation capacities
- working parents: -more mothers in the labor force -many moms spend the greatest part of their day away from kids -development is affected more strongly by the nature of parents' work than by the employment of parents outside the home
- children of divorce: -divorce rate increased in the 60s&70s but declined since the 80s -divorce rate higher in the US than other countries -40% of children will experience their parents' divorce -many factors involved
- self-understanding: -self: all characteristics of a person -central aspect of the individual's personality -lends an integrative dimension to our understanding of different personality char- acteristics -young children are psychologically aware of themselves & others -identity emerges before 2 yrs
- developmental changes: infancy: -difficult to study bc infants can't tell us how they experience themselves, verbally express their views of the self, or understand complex instructions from researchers -self recognition as early as 3 mo -ability to recognize their physical features and develop a conscious awareness of their own body at 2 yrs
-toddlers show self awareness at 2-3 yrs -beginning of children's representation of their own 3D body shape & appearance
- developmental changes: early childhood: -confusion of self, mind, & body -concrete descriptions: define themselves in terms of "I live in a big house" or "I can count" (preschool) -psychological trait and emotion terms in self-descriptions (4-5 yrs) -physical descriptions -active descriptions -unrealistic positive overestimations: difficulty differentiating desire vs reality
- developmental changes: middle & late childhood: -psychological character- istics & traits: popular, mean, nice, smart, etc. -social descriptions -social comparison -real self & ideal self -more realistic
- developmental changes: adolescence: -abstract & idealistic -self consciousness -contradictions w/in the self -the fluctuating self -real & ideal self -self integration -social comparison
- social cognition: the processes involved in understanding the world around us, especially how we think & reason about other ppl
- understanding others: early childhood: -children begin to perceive others in terms of psychological traits at 4-5 yrs -4 yr olds understand that ppl lie to get what they want -socially sensitive & perceptive -perspective taking --> executive functioning such as cognitive inhibition and flexi- bility
- understanding others in middle & late childhood: -children understand that others may have dif perspective based on what info they have (6- yrs) -prosocial vs antisocial attitudes & behavior -more skeptical of others' claims -understand others' motivation
- understanding others in adolescence: -perspective taking -perceiving others' traits: teens develop a more sophisticated understanding that others are complex and have public & private faces -social cognitive monitoring -naive to societal disparities -older teens more aware of social justice
- self-esteem: person's self-worth or self-image, a person's global evaluation of the self
- self-concept: our understanding and evaluation of who we are
- Self Assessment: self worth & self concept for:
-scholastic competence -athletic competence -social acceptance -physical appearance -behavioral conduct physical appearance holds most weight
- identity in adolescence: adolescents are faced w deciding who they are, what they're all about, and where they're going in life -youth who successfully cope w conflicting identities emerge w new sense of self that is refreshing & acceptable -those who don't survive the identity crisis suffer identity confusion wherein individ- uals withdraw or lose themselves in the crowd -begins w appearance of attachment, development of sense of self, emergence of independence in infancy -reaches final phase w a life review and integration in old age
- psychosocial moratorium: the gap btwn childhood security & adult autonomy during which society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibility and free to try out different identities
- Immigrant identity: -ethnic identity is stronger among minority groups -1st gen immigrants more likely to be secure in identity -2nd gen immigrants more likely to think of themselves as American -3rd+ gen become more complex & depends on social factors
- adolescents develop a bicultural identity which is: identify in some ways w majority culture and other w ethnic culture
- social influences on gender stereotypes: -mother and father raise
girls/boys differently, children prefer same sex peers
- mother's socialization strategies: mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient & responsible and face more restrictions than their sons
- father's socialization strategies: fathers show more attention to sons than daughters, engage in more activities w them, put in more effort to their intellectual development
- phoneme: basic unit of sound, smallest unit of sound that affects meaning (ex: t, ch, l)