Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: Careers Perspective, Lecture notes of Business

Download Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: Careers Perspective and more Lecture notes Business in PDF only on Docsity! 9 Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: Careers Perspective LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter you should be able to: • Define equality, diversity, and inclusion • Distinguish between a variety of diversities • Identify the advantages and possible pitfalls in managing diversity and inclusion • Understand the impact of diverse individual backgrounds on careers • Distinguish between the legal and managerial arguments in managing diversity • Understand the role of diversity in career systems management 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 287 12/18/2021 4:51:11 PM 288 Managing Careers and Employability Chapter outline What is diversity? 288 What is inclusion? 289 What is discrimination? 290 What is management of diversity? 291 Organizational approaches to tackling discrimination and improving inclusion 296 Procedural justice and distributive justice 297 Specific groups and relevant issues 301 Belonging to a special type of family 313 Organizational policies and their importance in managing diversity 314 Summary 315 Key terms 315 Discussion questions 316 Exercise 317 What is diversity? No two people are the same. We all have unique qualities. Each person possesses a distinctive combination of internal and external characteristics that makes them different from any other person. Yet we share many characteristics with certain other people, forming collectives of groups with specific common characteristics (e.g. gender, skin colour, etc.). Within the work-realm, organization and career context, ‘diversity’ relates to the existence of a variety of subgroups in the workforce. The dominant group in Western countries and many others are White men. In the past White men comprised most of the workforce, but this has changed, as they now form less than 50% of the workforce; for example, in the USA, only some 60% of the population are (non-Hispanic) White, and half of them only are males. Despite this, White males still hold the majority of managerial positions, and this disproportion- ate representation increases the higher up the organizational echelons one travels. White males’ salaries are higher than those of women and other under-represented, most often dis- advantaged groups. The substantial earnings gap between men and women varies in level, according to the country, the profession, and the sector. It is not unusual to find a 20%, 30%, or higher pay gap. Under-represented groups include women (being the largest group that suffers discrimina- tion) ethnic minority groups, people with a physical or mental disability, minority religion groups, older and younger people (although discrimination against older people is more prevalent in labour markets), LGBT+ people and people with different nationalities. And the list is not conclusive. Most of these sources of diversity are observable or easily detectable 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 288 12/18/2021 4:51:11 PM Equality, diversity, and inclusion: Careers perspective 291 to the gender pay gap (Bishu & Alkadry, 2017). The first is about various estimations of the extent of the magnitude of the gender pay gap. The second investigates disparities in access to workplace authority as a driver of the pay gap. The third focuses on the HRM aspect of access to hiring and promotion practices as moderators of the pay gap. The fourth relates to the relationship between pay gap and gender representation (agency, occupation, and position segregation). What is management of diversity? ‘Management of diversity’ means working systematically towards a workplace where the com- position of the employees’ diversity will reflect that of the general society. This involves taking proactive steps to promote a culture and atmosphere of equality and to ensure that there is no unjustified discrimination in the selection of people – both entering the organization and in promotional decisions. These can be the practice of recruitment and selection of new entrances, education and training of the existing workforce, career development initiatives (e.g. ensuring promotional opportunities for all), and specific practices such as mentoring – all with the aim of increasing and retaining workforce heterogeneity within the organization. Inclusion would be the outcome of effective diversity management. By ‘diversity’ we refer to demographic differences among staff members. These can be observable, such as gender, race, age, or non-observable attributes such as culture, cognition, education, or a combination. Some can be hidden or open, for example, religion or sexual orientation. Diversity is consid- ered a characteristic of a work group or organization. ‘Inclusion’, in contrast, refers to employee perceptions that their unique contribution to the organization is appreciated and their full participation is encouraged (Mor Barak, 2015). The relationship between these concepts indi- cates certain similarities but also distinctions (Roberson, 2006). The issue of discrimination and diversity research is longstanding, and is covered by differ- ent streams of literature. Some are within the specific domain (e.g. gender studies, disability, etc.), and others are related to human resource management, for the context of people man- agement and mismanagement (Triana et al., 2021). Why manage diversity? Aside from ethical and human rights perspectives, two of the key business reasons why organi- zations should manage diversity are: the legal aspect; and organizational performance, effectiveness, and outcomes. To be more explicit, Cox and Blake (1991) presented six manage- rial arguments to support the management of diversity in organizations: 1. Cost: the organization needs to be able to manage the full spectrum of the workforce, including segments that in the past were marginal, but are now becoming more dominant. Failing to do that will be costly and will prevent organizations from achieving full productivity. 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 291 12/18/2021 4:51:11 PM 292 Managing Careers and Employability 2. Resource acquisition: Organizations with a favourable reputation for positive management of diversity (e.g. being in the Fortune 100 Best Employers list) will attract the most talented members of diverse groups. 3. Marketing: Organizations serve and produce for multicultural and diverse societies. A diverse workforce will have better insights and sensitivities to the needs of a diverse cus- tomer base. 4. Creativity: A diverse workforce should enhance the level of creativity and innovation. 5. Problem solving: A diverse workforce should produce high-quality decisions and solutions. 6. System flexibility: The better the management of diversity means more flexibility and faster and more efficient responsiveness to environmental changes. Organizations are moving towards using the business case rather than the legal arguments in adopting alternative approaches to managing diversity. More specifically, the prospects of attracting ethical investors and government support are greater for organizations that practice positive management of diversity (Cassell & Kele, 2020). The ideas presented by Cox and Blake (1991) have been echoed by many. Organizations which apply practices to help tackle dis- crimination, for example flexibility practices (such as work–life balance or flexible work policies), are supporting diversity, but might be insufficient to enhance gender equity (Lewis & Humbert, 2010). These arguments should help organizations, not just to note the issue of managing diversity through the eyes of the legal adviser, making sure they comply with the law, but to value diversity as a source of strength and competitiveness. Combining ethical and moral perspec- tives with cost-effectiveness and managerial best practice will result in recognition of the need to manage diversity for both strategic and pragmatic reasons. Greenhaus et al. (2019) present two schools of thought on why organizations should man- age diversity. One approach recognizes that the world and the workplace are becoming increasingly diverse. This trend is inevitable, therefore organizations must accept this new demographic reality, that is, hire and develop the most talented individuals from varying back- grounds in an effective and fair manner. Diversity is a fact of life and here to stay (and expand). The other approach goes further than seeing diversity as a necessity, and argues that diversity is inherently healthy and beneficial in its own right. This approach assumes that employees from different backgrounds will bring different strengths and perspectives, which, in turn, will enhance effectiveness. In line with the first approach is the fact that certain changes in the composition of the workforce in Western societies are making the management of diversity even more acute and complex (Syed & Ozbilgin, 2019). Already in the last century it was noted that three groups have increased representation in the workforce: first, women; second, ethnic minorities (some of this increase was due to immigration and some to lack of parity in internal growth rates); and third; older workers, as we witness the phenomenon of the ageing of the working popula- tion (Syed & Ozbilgin, 2019). Other groups include people with disabilities and varied religious and cultural backgrounds. Following societal changes, the diversity of sexual orientation is 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 292 12/18/2021 4:51:11 PM Equality, diversity, and inclusion: Careers perspective 293 becoming more prominent, as people today are less reluctant to hide their sexual orientation. It was found that within organizations, individuals who are actors for social movement can change organizational policies, though implementing such commitments or policies is chal- lenging. LGBT+ advocates have developed resources to ensure that diversity policies were increasingly relevant for sexual minorities, as found for the case of France (Buchter, 2020). She found that LGBT+ rights activists increased their influence by developing implementation resources that corporations could readily use to introduce or revise their diversity policies and practices to promote the inclusion of LGBT+ employees. Are the arguments presented in the second approach (the business case) valid? Studies on diversity in top management teams (Opstrup & Villadsen, 2015) indicated that diversity leads to more effective decision-making processes and better organizational performance. This may be due to the process of sharing and benefitting from a variety of perspectives and ideas. Promoting women and members of other under-represented groups into top managerial jobs is not always simple, but can be done with the right attitude and managerial support. In the end, the outcomes for the organization will be positive, as found by Harel et al. (2003) (see later in this chapter for elaboration of this point). Whether one adopts the first approach, the second, or both, the consequences are that diversity should be managed. A pause for reflection How much of managing diversity is truly aimed at inclusion and how much is addressing political correctness? Are there risks? Is diversity inherently good? Should we expect only positive outcomes from diversity? It is argued that there can be some negative aspects of increasing diversity, and these are more severe if diversity is not introduced properly into the organizational culture. For example, sexual harassment is a serious misbehaviour (Fitzgerald & Cortina, 2018), yet, in a hypothetical single-gender workplace there would be no cases of men (or women) harassing women (or men). While earlier studies suggested negative outcomes of a lowered attachment of white people and males (Tsui et al., 1992), later work identified positive organizational outcomes (Gilbert & Ivancevich, 2001). As for decision making, evidence does not suggest that hetero- geneous teams make better decisions (Martin-Alcazar et al., 2012). Are the risks strong enough to discourage organizations from managing diversity? The answer is clearly negative. As indicated, diversity should be embraced. However, risk should be managed too, and awareness will help in prompting the setting of mechanisms to tackle any possible negative outcomes. 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 293 12/18/2021 4:51:11 PM 296 Managing Careers and Employability Organizational approaches to tackling discrimination and improving inclusion Many HR managers put an increasing emphasis on tackling all possible kinds of discrimination. EEO and AA legislation are high on the agenda, especially in relation to gender. Towards the end of the 20th century the phenomenon of the ‘glass ceiling’ effect was recognized. It means that women were often not promoted above a certain managerial level (Morrison et al., 1987a). According to Morrison et al., the glass ceiling is ‘a transparent barrier, that kept women from rising above a certain level in corporations’ (1987a, pp. 13 & 124). By the start of the 21st century, most of the glass ceilings were at least shattered, namely by women managed to reach top positions – yet, in many cases, those who made it were one-off cases or ‘token’ appoint- ments, and the majority of top management teams, certainly CEOs, comprise men. Many programmes are meant to support the population discriminated against, sometimes even to create ‘positive discrimination’. It is important, though, that such ‘positive discrimina- tion’ does not imply abandonment of selection according to skills, competencies, and suitabil- ity for the job. There is always a danger that positive discrimination could result in choosing someone with lower skills and qualifications, reducing future prospects of success for under- represented populations. One well-documented phenomenon is the ‘glass cliff’ (Ryan et al., 2016), where women are disproportionately represented in leadership positions that have low chance of success. Problems of discrimination exist for many groups, not just for women. Ethnic background, disability, age, and religious belief can prevent appropriate people from making their full contribution. For example, mass early retirements accepted by or imposed on people in their 50s might deprive organizations of a pool of talented and experienced people. People with disabilities can be disadvantaged where they are not supported with the right practical adjustments to enable them to fulfil their role. Organizations that recognize these issues will benefit from pursuing different career management practices for particular groups with spe- cific needs. Special programmes are not necessarily concerned with discrimination. The case of the single parent family brings up another issue that may require special attention, such as alterna- tive work arrangements. The HR system must recognize this, especially where international relocations become necessary as part of career progress (Baruch et al., 2016a). The trend of globalization continues, and managing expatriates is still a crucial issue alongside other types of global mobility. Beyond demographic factors Diversity is not limited to demographic characteristics such as race, age, and gender, but has many not-so-obvious facets. First, there are the attitudes of employees, in line with the concept proposed by Harrison et al. (1998), of surface- as opposed to deep-level diversity; and second, the diversity may relate to variables such as work arrangements (contingent as opposed to the core workforce) in the organizational context and social status in the social-level context. 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 296 12/18/2021 4:51:11 PM Equality, diversity, and inclusion: Careers perspective 297 Research has shown that diversity affects group processes and performance (Chatman et al., 1998). While here, I will focus mostly on personal characteristics as a source of diversity; other types of diversity exist, and will be discussed too. The most obvious negative outcome of diversity mismanagement is the possibility of peo- ple being discriminated against, not because of performance, attitudes, or other job-related factors, but because of an irrelevant personal background (Triana et al., 2021). It is important to realize that in both selection and career decisions the aim is to ‘discriminate’ – between the right people (who should be selected, promoted, etc.) and the wrong ones. The ‘discrimi- nation’ that takes place should be undertaken according to fair, accepted, and relevant cri- teria, and should comply with the law and with principles of management (best practice). If the ‘discrimination’ is based on irrelevant factors (e.g. gender, race, etc.), this is a real discrimination. What is a real and relevant difference, and what is a stereotype? A stereotype is ‘a precon- ceived perception or image one has of another person based on that person’s membership in a particular social group or category’ (Greenhaus et al., 2019. Some stereotypes can be positive; others are quite negative. Nevertheless, organizational career decisions should not be based on stereotypes but on merit. Procedural justice and distributive justice Procedural justice refers to the process by which norms are implemented. Distributive jus- tice, on the other hand, refers to the actual outcomes of such procedures. Procedural justice can be viewed as the degree to which the rules and procedures specified by policies are properly followed in all cases under which they are applied. In an organizational context, procedural justice concerns the means (rather than the ends) of social justice (Furnham, 2005). For example, ‘pay procedures are more likely to be perceived as fair (1) if they are consistently applied to all employees, (2) if employee participation and/or representation is included, (3) if appeals procedures are available, and (4) if the data used are accurate’ (Milkovich & Newman, 1996: 62). The underlying assumption is that employees will accept and comply with organizational policies and decisions if they are based on fair and just procedures. Justice refers not just to being treated with dignity and respect, but also to being given adequate information regarding these procedures (Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997; Vermunt & Törnblom, 2016). Therefore, organizational career systems should ensure that the process is transparent. HRM practices, and in particular career-related decision processes, are highly relevant to the evaluation and acceptance of procedural justice, which engenders a culture of trust. Procedural justice as reflected in HRM-related decision making has a strong effect on employees’ attitudes and behaviours (Gilliland, 1994; Konovsky & Folger, 1994). People need to know that a fair rule exists, and that it is applied to all. Then, of course, there is the issue of whether the rules and procedures are translated into actual fair distribution (distributive justice). 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 297 12/18/2021 4:51:11 PM 298 Managing Careers and Employability The virtuous versus the vicious cycle of diversity The starting point for the model presented in Figure 9.1 is the current labour market in most industrial societies. Many populations that once were not represented in the workforce (people of different ethnic origin) or in the managerial workforce (women and people from deprived social classes) now have the opportunity to become equal partners. The question remains whether this right, though legally valid, is only on paper, or whether it is a reality, and if the latter, the effect of this reality for organizations and individual employees. The first question to be considered is how far the wide diversity in the workforce is reflected in any specific workplace. Can we expect a similar distribution of diversity? What should be the reference level? For example, sometimes national statistics should provide guidelines, whereas in specific regions regional statistics should do so. As another example, the represen- tation of Roman Catholics in the management or organizations in Northern Ireland should be higher than that in Wales, as there are more Roman Catholics in Northern Ireland than in Wales. Similarly, the expected percentage of Hispanics in the managerial workforce in San Antonio, Texas, should be higher than that in Seattle, Washington, whereas in Seattle one may expect to find more managers of Far Eastern national origin due to the geographical proximity. On the other hand, one can and should learn from industries where diversity has been proven to work effectively. Such is the case of women and ethnic minorities in the legal profes- sion, though gaps still persist in representation (Aulack et al., 2017). Different people bring different qualities, different perspectives and different inputs. This is what makes variety so beneficial, on the one hand, but also so challenging, on the other. Following Harrison et al. (1998), we can refer to visible as opposed to invisible diversity. Some types of diversity are clearly visible (e.g. colour of the skin, gender), others less so (e.g. religion, sexual orientation). In the latter cases, it is up to the person whether or not to reveal these aspects of their identity. In a study that empirically tested deep-level and surface diversity, Harrison et al. (2002) investigated the impact of time on both types of diversity. Their data supported the model presented in Figure 9.2, showing that, as time passes, integration reduces the impact of surface- level diversity (mostly demographic factors), but increases the relevance of deep-level diversity, as a factor that is considered in recruitment decisions (Casper, Wayne, & Manegold, 2013). A pause for reflection Question 1 Think of ways in which the traditional management system can pretend to apply rules justly, but refrain from doing so. Question 2 Will people accept and believe such a system, or will they realize what is going on and resent the system or even quit because it fails to deliver? 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 298 12/18/2021 4:51:11 PM Equality, diversity, and inclusion: Careers perspective 301 to assume a false identity. An evading strategy results in passing because the individual evades all queries related to the invisible identity or social group membership in question. Much has changed in society’s attitude towards LGBT+ rights, and it is now much more frequent for individuals to be open about their sexual orientation, even in cultures where this was historically difficult (Papadaki & Giannou, 2021). This has implications, both positive and negative: the positive include improved psychological wellbeing and interpersonal relations, whereas the negatives are associated with social avoidance and disapproval as key costs by people holding homophobic views (Corrigan & Matthews, 2003). National and cultural differ- ences play a crucial role in the actual outcomes of inclusion of LGBT+ people (Ozeren & Aydin, 2016). While ‘passing’ is a category of strategies designed to conceal a potentially stigmatized identity or social identity group membership, revealing strategies are tactics designed to disclose to oth- ers an identity that would otherwise be invisible or unrecognizable. The three different revealing strategies Clair et al. (2002) propose are: signalling, normalizing, and differentiating. Individuals who signal are attempting to disclose their hidden identity, but rather than explicitly ‘going pub- lic’ and fully disclosing their difference, they send messages, drop hints, and give clues to those to whom they wish to disclose their full identity. Individuals employ a normalizing strategy by revealing their hidden, potentially stigmatized identity to others and then attempting to make their difference seem commonplace or ordinary, within the social norms of the organization, essentially denying that their identity matters. Differentiating means seeking to underscore dif- ference, and this is sometimes done in an effort to change others’ attitudes and behaviour. The motives for choosing a strategy can be personal, instrumental, or both. For example, instrumental motives for revealing may be to obtain social support, to obtain accommodation, to create awareness, and to attempt creating social change. Of course, the organizational and cultural context will influence people’s choice of a particular strategy. A pause for reflection What strategy would you adopt if you felt you were different? Why? How would you practice your strategy? Specific groups and relevant issues This section examines specific groups in terms of the following factors: Demographic: gender, ethnic origin, age (young, old), disability, sexual orientation, religion. Presence: deep-level diversity. Intersectionality: existence of hybrid diversity (combining more than one possible source of diversity). 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 301 12/18/2021 4:51:12 PM 302 Managing Careers and Employability At its narrowest, the management of diversity refers to the propensity of an organization to have an appropriate EEO system of policies and practices to ensure that people are treated according to their abilities, competencies, contribution, and performance, rather than being judged by irrelevant factors. Therefore, gender discrimination and racial discrimination come into the so-called management of diversity. This is indeed a narrow approach. Unfair and unlawful discrimination can have a variety of grounds, as listed above. There is also a lawful discrimination when people of a different nationality face higher hurdles when applying for a job in a different country. With the rare exception of job searches within the European Union, countries actively discriminate against people of foreign nationality, refusing them employment unless they have a work permit (e.g. the US ‘green card’). Box 9.2: Meet our first … The presence in senior management positions of members of groups that were previously the object of discrimination is often the result of the efforts of pioneering people. Many of the female executives studied by Morrison et al. (1987a) were the first women to reach that rank in their organizations. The same is true in relation to the first Black person in the job: Colin Powell was the first non-White Secretary of State in the USA, then came Barack Obama, the first non- White US President, and now Kamala Harris, the first female non-White Vice President. It can be about disability: the first blind person in a top political post was David Blunkett, a leading politician in the UK, an example that blindness does not prevent people from being able to lead, make tough decisions, and be part of the government. In many cases, the presence of these pioneers paves the way for the next generation of a diverse workforce. It remains the case, however, that such appointments are sometimes made for reasons of image or publicity or to comply with legal requirements. ‘Being there’ as the first non-White male in a top role imposes a heavy burden on that person, who is put under strong scrutiny, knowing that if they are seen to fail, this will have a long-lasting impact for many future gen- erations of non-White-males in the managerial ranks, in terms of public perception, rather than anything implicit. In other words, this could reinforce discriminatory views, rather than challenge them. Gender variety Women form some half of the population, but not half of the workforce. For two reasons it is difficult or impossible for women to make up exactly half of the labour force. First, in many countries women are forced or allowed to retire at an earlier age than men. Second, for bio- logical reasons, many women do leave the workforce for a period to give birth and to care for their infants. Nevertheless, and to some extent affected by the greater involvement in recent years of fathers in caring for children, the trend is towards near-equality in terms of male and female participation in the labour force. 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 302 12/18/2021 4:51:12 PM Equality, diversity, and inclusion: Careers perspective 303 The negative aspect of this trend is that, in terms of the pay gap between men and women and promotion to top positions, the movement towards equality is much slower. Women still earn significantly less than men. The unadjusted gender wage gap varied from around 2% to 32% among OECD countries in 2018 (OECD, 2018), and the World Economic Forum (2020) reports a 31.4% gap globally – albeit women represent half of the world’s population and human capital. Representation at the top is even less equal, but, again, there are some improvements. When Morrison et al. published their seminal book, Breaking the Glass Ceiling (1987b), only 1.7% of corporate officers of Fortune 500 companies were women, and only one woman was a CEO. Among the ‘very big names’ in the early 2000s, Carly Fiorina was a pioneer female CEO when leading the merged HP/Compaq company. Now, 20 year later, many top leaders are women: Marissa Mayer as the CEO of Yahoo!, Susan Wojcicki of YouTube, and Mary Barra leading General Motors are just some prominent examples. According to the Global Gender Gap Report 2020 of the World Economic Forum (2020), the average global (population-weighted) pay gap completed to parity is at 68.6%, which although is an indication of continuous improvement on recent years, is a major gap. It means that there is still a 31.4% average gender gap that remains to be closed globally. Unfortunately, the same report states: ‘Projecting current trends into the future, the overall global gender gap will close in 99.5 years, on average, across the 107 countries covered continuously since the first edition of the report.’ The Scandinavian countries led the way in introducing women as equal partners into the employment realm and are top of global league table for the lowest gender pay gap (World Economic Forum, 2020). The origin for these achievements are rooted in developing new social models of gender equality at the end of the 1960s and in the 1970s (Moen, 1989). Much of the trend towards gender equality was supported by legislation (Enquist, 1984), and there is still considerable legal action to enable and encourage EEO in Western societies. Hull and Nelson (2000), for example, explore three different theoretical models of gender differences in professional careers. They discovered, in line with other scholarly findings (cf. Hall-Taylor, 1997), that differences in career path and achievements cannot be fully explained by career choice, and that there are constraints affecting women’s development. Conversely and contro- versially, Hakim (2000) suggested that part of the lack of equality is due to women’s self- defeating approach to careers. Although more women start professional careers now than in the past, they often begin in lower-prestige jobs than, and make slower career progress than, their male counterparts. A better picture is found where more diversity exists, such as in the civil service (Barnett et al., 2000; Riccucci, 2018). However, both the employment world (i.e. the labour market and employers’ attitudes) and personal factors create and maintain the glass ceiling. Nevertheless, diversity is not restricted to the issue of gender, as will be discussed later in this chapter. The stereotype of women is that they are more caring and better in teamwork and at creat- ing relationships than men. Women can bring different and beneficial skills to leadership roles. In certain roles these qualities are more important than others. However, in the tough current business environment, such qualities are not necessarily advantageous. It could be said that 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 303 12/18/2021 4:51:12 PM 306 Managing Careers and Employability Women and entrepreneurship Women are active in the business community, accounting for a growing number of business start-ups. Yet, current discourse of entrepreneurship fundamentally disadvantages women (Marlow, 2019). Starting one’s own business can be seen as ‘an easy way to escape’, although it only appears easy, as many entrepreneurs will testify. CASE STUDY 9.2: START-UP AS A CAREER SOLUTION Adriana was a broker in the City of London. After working for a number of years in a large multinational investment bank, she and her husband decided to raise a family. Less than two years after her first son was born, Adriana felt she needed the action of business life, but did not want to give up her family responsibilities. Her husband remained employed in another job in the city, the type she would have had if she had continued her career. As a result, she decided to start her own small business, from home. She opened a business importing hair accessories and manages it all from the convenience of her home, close to London. After a shaky start she is beginning to see that the business should survive and grow while her family benefit from her being at home. There is support for the effectiveness argument in a number of studies. Drawing on the literature of HRM, women in management and organizational effectiveness, Harel, Tzafrir and Baruch (2003) suggested a model (see Figure 9.3) bringing these perspectives together into a single framework. Their model, based on an empirical study of 102 Israeli organizations, indi- cates a significant and positive association between high-quality HRM and fairness in promotion of women in organizations. Fairness in the promotion of women into managerial ranks was also found to be associated with higher organizational effectiveness. Davidson and Burke (2011) summarize prominent research findings about women in management: • There has been progress in the number of women entering management, but the pace is slow, and attention to this issue is still needed. • Managerial job segregation by gender persists (women are found in HR, public affairs, communication, and law, but less in line management). One problem with such segrega- tion is that such jobs rarely lead to executive-level positions. 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 306 12/18/2021 4:51:12 PM Equality, diversity, and inclusion: Careers perspective 307 Organizational characteristics HRM Practices Fairness in promotion Organizational effectiveness Figure 9.3 Fairness in promotion and organizational effectiveness (Harel et al., 2003) • Intersectionality (hybrid diversity) (in their case, women of ethnic minorities) is even harder to overcome. • Affirmative action is important for making progress towards closing the gap, although it might create problems such as tokenism and backlash. • A new trend towards lean-and-mean business management may contrast with the (arche- typal) qualities women bring to the workplace. Being mostly in mid-level management, they will be more dispensable than men. • Flexible and alternative work arrangements might be superficial mechanisms that, in fact, limit women’s career prospects. • Women still carry higher responsibility than men in their ‘second shift’ work at home. • Organizational culture tends to be mostly male culture, and this can work against women. • The best argument for women in management should be the business case of implementa- tion of resources. Therefore, organizations should promote a culture where women and other minorities can succeed. Gender identity In the past, there were generally viewed to be two genders, male and female, but there is now greater recognition of other gender identities. There is still a long way to go on this front, and people who do not identify as exclusively male or female, who are non-binary or transgender, can face many forms of workplace discrimination; from not being able to access gender-neutral toilet facilities, to incorrect use of pronouns, or direct harassment. People may feel the need to ‘pass’ for fear of discrimination (Miller & Grollman, 2015). Ethnicity Race and ethnicity also produce a rich variety, and in many countries, the minorities comprise a combination of many different minorities. In the USA, the major groups of ethnic minorities 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 307 12/18/2021 4:51:12 PM 308 Managing Careers and Employability are African-American, people of Asian origin (with Chinese, Indian and South-East Asian immi- grants the source of this variety), Native Americans, and the fast-growing Hispanic people (mostly from Central and South America). It is estimated that by the mid-century, White people (non-Hispanic) will form less than 50% of the population (Craig & Richeson, 2018). The racial issue goes beyond employment and careers. The Black Lives Matter movement has gained strong attention as it is concerned with the worth not only of the labour, but of the life of Black people (Szetela, 2020). In the UK, many immigrants came from the former British Empire, including many from India and Pakistan, but other places too. In Germany, there is a growing community of Turkish- born immigrants. Other Western countries also have significant sub-populations of different ethnic origins. There have been continuous waves of migration from Africa to Europe, some for humanitarian motives, others are economic migration, which increases diversity minorities in Europe (Giménez-Gómez, Walle, & Zergawu, 2019), making countries like France and Sweden have significantly large sections of the population descended from Africa and the Middle East. Some of them arrived unauthorized, leading to further obstacles to enter the labour market (Carling & Hernández-Carretero, 2011). In marketing and creative activities, ethnicity has to be taken into account. Some people may put greater trust in people of the same origin, when they encounter them in business situ- ations, for example, representing companies in sales, negotiations, and deal making. Moreover, consumer companies that target the whole population should be aware of the specific needs and tastes of various groups within the population. Ensuring that the teams which make deci- sions about products and markets are representative and will make such targeting more effec- tive. Such team members may also be a source of valuable (e.g. local) information. Age Age diversity in the workforce derives from the fact that those in work range in age from about 18 to 65, the formal retirement age in most countries. The two possible forms of age-related discrimination are that against young people and that against older people, with the latter gain- ing more attention from legislators and the media. The numbers of people of each age are easily identifiable, and trends are relatively simple to recognize. There are several trends in relation to the age composition of people in the labour mar- ket. The age at entry has been rising as the proportion of school leavers who go on to university has increased, thus delaying their entry to the labour market (more than one- third of the current population in developed societies attend university, and the proportion will continue to grow). At the other end of the spectrum, we find people aged about 65 years are retiring from employment. So the main input for understanding age trends is the past birth rate. To take just one example, following the Second World War there was a large increase in births. People born in the late 1940s and the 1950s (termed ‘baby boomers’) entered the labour market in the 1960s, and these people are now approaching retirement. In contrast, in the following years the birth rate declined, so fewer people entered the labour market. 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 308 12/18/2021 4:51:12 PM Equality, diversity, and inclusion: Careers perspective 311 the work attitudes and career perceptions an organization may expect its employees to hold. Attitudes are part of the ‘deep’ level of diversity discussed earlier in this chapter. Disability To benefit from a wider talent pool, as well as to act with social responsibility, organizations should employ people with disabilities (PWDs) (Kulkarni et al., 2016). A significant share of the population has a mental or physical disability, and their employ- ment levels are far below those with no disability. According to the US Bureau of Labour Statistics (2020), in 2019, 19.3% of PWDs were employed. For those without a disability, the figure was 66.3% employed in 2019 (US Bureau of Labour Statistics, 2021). PWDs suffer lack of employment opportunities and career growth options available to their counterparts without disabilities (Bonaccio et al., 2020). They experience discrimination, ste- reotyping, and barriers to the employment (Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 2016). As a result, many tend to end with low employment, low-pay, job insecurity, and poor quality of life (Shantz, Wang & Malik 2018). Due to past moral pressure, there are both legislative and government obligations on employers to recruit people with disabilities. The argument for doing so is not, however, merely ethical: PWDs prove to be highly loyal members of the workforce, with much lower turnover rates than others (e.g. Pogrund, 2018). Physical disability Physical disabilities are often visible. Managing diversity based on physical disability should in theory be simpler than managing other types of diversity. It is relatively easy to identify whether the physical problem would prevent, hinder, or interfere with the performance of the job. If the answer is negative, people should not be discriminated against on the grounds of that disability. In fact, organizations may benefit from the stronger level of commitment of such people, who have been accepted in spite of their disability. Further, the effects of physical dis- ability are felt more in the realm of manual work than in managerial positions. The higher the level of managerial responsibility, the less the physical dimension matters. Mental disability There are plenty of jobs which people with learning difficulties are entirely capable of per- forming well. People with an intellectual disability are often extremely well motivated, loyal, and appreciative of their employers. Other learning difficulties may not prevent people from taking on managerial roles (e.g. dyslexia, a problem of reading/writing that is not concerned with intelligence or ability to communicate). One additional challenge for an organization employing people with any disability or dif- ficulty is to facilitate their induction so that appropriate adjustments and support systems are 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 311 12/18/2021 4:51:12 PM 312 Managing Careers and Employability in place and their colleagues and managers feel equipped to discuss and support their require- ments. As stated above, both on moral grounds and from the business case argument, employ- ing people with disabilities may be best practice. Religion Religion can be a very highly emotionally charged issue. However, there are very few jobs or careers that require membership of a particular religion, and these are not found in business firms. In places like Northern Ireland, however, there is clear segregation between the com- munities, which is reflected also in the labour market and in the composition of the workforce in workplaces. Sexual orientation Sexual orientation can be an even more emotionally charged issue than religion, as some indi- viduals object to people of non-conventional sexual orientation on moral grounds. No matter whether a person is an accountant or bricklayer, what they do in their private life remains their own business. Again, companies that will not recruit such people lose a wide pool of talent. The true number of non-heterosexual people is not clear, and can be anywhere between 2 to 13% (Day & Greene, 2008), as it is not easily disclosed. When people feel that they are forced to keep their sexual orientation secret, their job sat- isfaction and commitment will deteriorate (Day & Schoenrade, 1995) because of the stress and negative feelings that accompany the need to hide something of such importance from close colleagues. On the other hand, companies may make changes to their policies so that benefits usually provided only for the spouses of employees will be made available also to same-sex partners. Otherwise they might find themselves in court, as was the case with El Al, the Israeli airline, which was forced to provide free flights to partners of stewardesses. Deep-level diversity Deep-level diversity mainly comprises attitudes and personalities. Different attitudes lead to different work behaviours, as discussed in Chapter 1 (the Fishbein–Ajzen model). Beliefs influence attitudes, and therefore organizations can and should train and educate people to value differences and to have beliefs based on facts rather than prejudice. When the various attitudes that exist in the community are reflected in the variety in an organization, the match between people and the organization, and between the organization and the environment, is greater. People have different personality traits and factors. Cattell’s 16PF model (discussed in Chapter 2), for example, shows 16 dimensions according to which people differ, and different roles require different personality profiles. For example, toughmindedness may be needed for a police officer, whereas tendermindedness is more required of a social worker. However, the 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 312 12/18/2021 4:51:12 PM Equality, diversity, and inclusion: Careers perspective 313 best negotiation team may be one that comprises people who can lead tough discussions but can also be tender and who can understand the other side’s point of view. Attitudes to careers have changed in recent years, and as a result the new generation have different views about employment. People with a traditional, old-fashioned viewpoint may lament the death of lifelong employment. Others claim that this status never really existed, being merely a self-fulfilling illusion. The younger participants in today’s labour markets (Generation X and those that have followed them) seem to be less interested in a lifelong job, and more interested in challenging and meaningful assignments for their self-development. The Y and Z Generations (Generation Y born between around 1980–1995 and Generation Z between 1996–2010) are considered ‘digital natives’, and have high level of individualism. Like Generation X before them, they have high level of corporate skepticism, even cynicism. To attract them, companies should be perceived as ethical, green, and acting in the community interest as they did for Generation X (Tapscott, 1998), and in order to keep an individual ori- entation where work–life balance is more important than in the past to both men and women (Agarwal & Vaghela, 2018; Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2019). Should companies treat employees as capital, and if so, what would be the reaction of Generation X/Y/Z workers? Belonging to a special type of family Dual-career couples Up until the late 20th century, the typical Western family comprised a father, a mother, and two or three children. The mother would have children in her 20s, and would not work outside the home thereafter. Many changes in society mean that people today tend to work, not merely for money, but for interest and challenge. Women may delay having children for many reasons, including the damaging effect of a career break on their progress. Many choose not to have children or to have one or two at most. One of the most problematic issues in relation to dual-career couples is relocation. Whereas once this would have meant that the male would be moved to work in another place and the family would move too, now this requires that two people, with separate careers, have to move, or that one employer would have to accept an alternative working arrangement (e.g. telecommuting) for one of the partners, or to try to find a job for the partner in the new loca- tion, which may be in a different country (see Chapter 8). Career development now needs to take into consideration the whole family. Single parents (mostly single mothers) For social and political reasons, governments do not wish single parents to drop out of the labour market. In the UK, the government initiated programmes to help teenage mothers to return to education and enter the labour market (https://www.education-ni.gov.uk/articles/ school-age-mothers-programme). 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 313 12/18/2021 4:51:13 PM 316 Managing Careers and Employability Procedural justice Surface diversity Valuing diversity DISCUSSION QUESTIONS LESSONS AND FOOD FOR THOUGHT 1. For HR managers: Using the CAST concept, how would you develop practices, policies and strategies to tackle and manage diversity? 2. For the HR consultant: What would be your advice to HR managers in developing a compre- hensive policy for managing diversity? How will your policy be influenced by the specific environment in which the organization operates? 3. For the HR teacher: In what way would you integrate new forms of diversity into existing career systems? 4. For the student: Do you belong to any of the above listed diverse sub-groups? Have you experienced discrimination in the past (see Exercise 1)? REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What are the major impetuses for organizations to manage diversity? 2. In what ways does your university encourage students from diverse backgrounds to apply for places? What practices does the university apply to support people of diverse backgrounds during their studies? If you had a disability (e.g. dyslexia or impaired hearing), how would your university help you? 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 316 12/18/2021 4:51:13 PM Equality, diversity, and inclusion: Careers perspective 317 EXERCISE Did you encounter any discrimination before your present studies; for example, did you perceive different attitudes towards you as compared with your work colleagues of other backgrounds? Gender Race/ethnicity Disability Religion Age Sexual orientation Other Not at all Very minor Minor Significant Very significant Please specify from whom (e.g. managers, peers, administrators, etc.) and in what connection: ________________________ Do you encounter any discrimination as a student (relate to your present studies)? For exam- ple, do you perceive different attitudes towards you as compared with your class colleagues of other backgrounds? Gender Race/ethnicity Disability Religion Age Sexual orientation Other Not at all Very minor Minor Significant Very significant Please specify from whom (e.g. academics, peers, administrators, etc.) and in what connection: ________________________ Would you anticipate any discrimination after you finish your present studies? Will it be stronger or milder than that before your studies, that is, do you think that having a formal degree such as advanced degree in management can reduce or eliminate discrimination? Source: This exercise is based on Cocchiara et al., 2010 and Baruch et al., 2016b. 09_BARUCH_CH_09.indd 317 12/18/2021 4:51:13 PM 0» BARUCH. CH_opindd 318 Oy vayis2021 45113 PM