Essentials of Pathophysiology - Exam 1 review sheet updated 2023, Exams of Nursing

Download Essentials of Pathophysiology - Exam 1 review sheet updated 2023 and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! lOMoARcPSD|28205643 Essentials of Pathophysiology - Exam 1 review sheet updated 2023 What happens to the body during “fight-or-flight” response? hormones like adrenalin and cortisol are released, speeding the heart rate, slowing digestion, shunting blood flow to major muscle groups, and changing various other autonomic nervous functions, giving the body a burst of energy and strength. 8. Review the functions of the various organelles of the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosome, lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisome, golgi apparatus • Nucleus ◆ Control center or “brain” of the cell ◆ DNA and genes stored here ◆ Production of messenger RNA ➢ Contains the instructions needed to build nearly all the body’s proteins ◆ Most cells contain only one nucleus ➢ Some cells like liver and skeletal muscle cells contain more ➢ Red blood cells contain no nucleus • Mitochondria - “Power house” of the cell ◆ Provide energy to the cell in the form of ATP ➢ More metabolically active cells have more mitochondria ◆ Mitochondria are a unique organelle because they contain their own set of DNA • Ribosome ◆ Site of protein production - RNA produced in nucleus sent to ribosomes ➢ RNA  Protein = Translation ◆ Found either floating in the cytoplasm (free) or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (bound) • Lysosome - are spherical membranous organelles containing digestive enzyme ◆ Lysis = breakdown ◆ Digests particles taken in by endocytosis ➢ Including bacteria, viruses, and toxins ◆ Degrades worn-out or nonfunctional organelles and tissues • Peroxisome - membranous sacs containing a variety of powerful enzymes such as oxidase and catalase ◆ Oxidases use molecular oxygen (O2) to detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and formaldehyde ◆ Neutralize dangerous free radicals into hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) ◆ Catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into H2O and O2 ◆ Numerous peroxisomes found in liver and kidney cells • Golgi apparatus ◆ Organelle made up of stacked, flattened membranes ◆ Sorts and packages proteins produced in ER ➢ Protein “packaging plant” – cell post office ◆ Move materials within cell and out of the cell • Rough Endoplasmic reticulum ◆ Series of folded membranes that move proteins around the cell ◆ Continuous with nuclear membrane of nucleus ◆ Rough ER – ribosomes attached to ER ➢ Site of protein synthesis ➢ Production of integral proteins and phospholipids found in cellular membranes • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum ◆ Smooth ER – ribosomes not attached to smooth ER ◆ Functions include: a. Detoxification b. Lipid metabolism c. Synthesis of hormones d. Calcium storage 9. Review the differences between extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid. Plasma membrane - flexible outer membrane of cell ▪ Separates two of the body’s major fluid compartments ◆ Intracellular fluid (ICF ) - within cells ◆ Extracellular fluid (ECF) - outside cells ▪ Composed of a phospholipid bilayer ▪ Contains several proteins, glucose molecules and lipids Which electrolytes are found in high concentration outside the cell versus inside the cell? u ECF has high concentration of sodium (Na+), chloride (Extracellular fluids (blood plasma and interstitial fluid) are very similar to one another u Blood plasma has high protein concentration compared to intracellular fluid (ICF) u Cl– ), and HCO3 – (sodium bicarbonate) u ICF contains only small amounts of Na+ and Cl– 10. Review how fluid is transported across the plasma membrane of the cell. Substances move through the plasma membrane by two different types of transport: • Passive transport – substances move down their concentration gradient ▪ Substances move from HIGH concentration  LOW ▪ Example – Osmosis, diffusion • Active transport – requires ATP ▪ Substances moves against their concentration gradient ◆ LOW concentration  HIGH Review the difference between diffusion and osmosis. • Diffusion - tendency of molecules or ions to distribute evenly throughout the environment • Passive membrane transport • Molecules move from areas where they are in high concentration to areas of low concentration Greater the difference in concentration - faster diffusion of particles occurs • Osmosis – process which allows for fluid (water) distribution between interstitial space and intracellular compartment • Osmolality = Concentration of solutes • High osmolality = high concentration of solutes (low concentration of water) • Low osmolality = low concentration of solutes (high concentration of water) • Water moves from an area of low osmolality (low solute concentration) to an area of higher osmolality (high solute) 11. Review ways that fluids enter the human body (intake) versus ways fluid is excreted (output) out of the body. Fluid can enter the body as preformed water, ingested food and drink, and, to a lesser extent, as metabolic water that is produced as a by-product of aerobic respiration and dehydration synthesis. Fluid can leave the body in three ways: 1. Urination 2. Excretion (feces) 3. Perspiration (sweating) 12. Review the differences between dehydration and hypotonic hydration. What are signs, symptoms, and causes for each? • Dehydration - when water output exceeds intake over a period of time (extracellular volume deficit) • Common occurrence after hemorrhage, severe burns, prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, profuse sweating, water deprivation, and diuretic abuse • Can also occur due to diseases such as diabetes mellitus or diabetes insipidus • Water from ECF is lost  osmolality of ECF increases – water moves from ICF to ECF ❖ Signs and symptoms of dehydration include: ➢ Dry or cotton mouth ➢ Extreme thirst ➢ Dry flushed skin ➢ Decreased urine output (oliguria) ❖ Prolonged dehydration may lead to weight loss, fever, and mental confusion, hypovolemic shock (decrease in blood volume) • Over hydration - also called water intoxication (hypotonic hydration)- Occurs when too much water is taken in too rapidly or renal activity is decreased • Concentration of water in ECF increases – causing ECF osmolality to drop • Inhibits release of ADH - less water is reabsorbed and excess water is quickly flushed from the body in urine ❖ Condition often results in hyponatremia ➢ Low ECF concentration of Na+ ❖ Water moves from ECF to ICF – causing cells to swell with water Hypotonic hydration leads to severe metabolic disturbances resulting in: ➢ Nausea and vomiting ➢ Muscular cramping ➢ Cerebral edema  convulsions, coma and death Can be treated by intravenous administration of hypertonic saline solution ➢ Reverses the osmotic gradient and “pulls” water out of the cells 13. What is edema? Edema - accumulation of fluid in the interstitial space - leading to tissue swelling Review the various factors that can contribute to edema. u Factors that contribute to edema include: u Increases in capillary hydrostatic pressure (blood vessel blockage, incompetent venous valves) u Increased capillary permeability (inflammation) u Congestive heart failure u High blood volume or HTN 15. What are the cardinal signs and symptoms of inflammation? ▪ Redness ▪ Heat ▪ Swelling ▪ Pain and loss of function Signs and symptoms Localized ▪ Five cardinal signs ▪ Occur with acute and chronic inflammation ▪ Can lead to systemic involvement Systemic ▪ Fever, neutrophilia, lethargy, muscle catabolism 16. Review the role of histamines, bradykinin, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes. Break in skin  causes injury to capillaries  release of bradykinin from injured cells Bradykinin stimulates pain receptors a. Stimulates mast cells and basophils to release histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes These chemical mediators cause vasodilation b. Increase blood flow and capillary permeability c. Allows for movement of leukocytes to site of tissue injury What effect do they have on the body during an immune response? a. Increase blood flow and capillary permeability b. Allows for movement of leukocytes to site of tissue injury 17. Review the differences between innate and adaptive immunity? Which is specific? Which is nonspecific? Innate immune response • Immediate, occurs on initial exposure to antigen • Includes chemical and physical barriers that prevent invasion • Fever, inflammation, phagocytes Adaptive (specific) immune response • Slow to develop • More efficient on subsequent exposures, memory cells • Includes B-cells and T-cells 18. What factors contribute to antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms? Antimicrobial Resistance - resistant strains of microorganisms emerge following exposure to antibiotics ◆ Caused by excessive use of antibiotics or subtherapeutic dosing How can we prevent the spread of microorganisms? ◆ Susceptible strains die, creating a drug-resistant infection 19. Review the difference between active and passive immunity, know examples for each type. Active Immunity A protected state owing to the body’s immune response as a result of active infection or immunization Immunizations – * Vaccines contain altered microorganisms or toxins * Retain ability to stimulate immune system * Produces memory B and T cell * Second exposure: quicker immune response Passive Immunity a. Transfer of preformed antibodies against specific antigen from a protected or immunized individual an unprotected or nonimmunized individual b. Provides immediate but temporary protection c. Short lasting, individual does not produce memory cells from transfer Examples include: Mother to fetus – antibodies cross placenta Mother to infant – antibodies from breast milk Serotherapy - direct injection/infusion of antibodies (human or animal) 20. What is a hypersensitivity? an immunological state in which the immune system “over- reacts” to foreign antigen such that the immune response itself is more harmful than the antigen. All types of hypersensitivity involve: • the adaptive immune response. • i.e., highly specific reactions via T or B cells. Review the four different types of hypersensitivities: Type I (Anaphylactic) - reaction mediated by IgE antibodies Type II (Cytotoxic) - cytotoxic reaction mediated by IgG or IgM antibodies Type III (Immune complex)- reaction mediated by immune complexes Type IV (Delayed cell-mediated)- delayed reaction mediated by cellular response Know examples and mediating factors for each type. 21. Review the differences between benign and malignant tumors. 22. What are the steps of carcinogenesis? Initiation (Conversion) – events which result in changes (mutations) to chromosomes or DNA Initiators include radiation, UV, carcinogens Promotion (Development) – Stage during which mutated cell proliferates Example – hormones such as estrogen Progression - Mutant, proliferating cells begin to exhibit malignant behavior, permanent changes 23. Review the effects of cancer on the body including terms: Cachexia - overall weight loss and generalized weakness- Loss of appetite (anorexia), Increased metabolic rate , Nausea/vomiting Anemia - deficiency in circulating red blood cells Leukopenia - deficiency in circulating white blood cells Thrombocytopenia - deficiency in circulating platelet