Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10, Exams of Pathophysiology

Download Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 and more Exams Pathophysiology in PDF only on Docsity! Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 Covers Material from Modules 1-10 Be sure to look over review sheets from Exam #1 and #2 – all previous information is fair game for the Final exam 1. Review the difference between homeostasis and allostasis. Allostasis is the overall process of adaptive change necessary 2. What is epidemiology? . Epidemiology the branch of medicine that deals with the study of the causes, distribution, and control of disease in populations….Review the different levels of disease prevention such as primary- preventionintermsofimprovednutrition,econ omy,housing,andsanitation Secondary- prevention that lead to the early diagnosis of disease and, in some cases, cure tertiary- prevention-once a disease becomes established, treatment as well as examples for each. Epidemiology the branch of medicine that deals with the study of the causes, distribution, and control of disease in populations. Primary- preventionintermsofimprovednutrition,econo my,housing,andsanitation… Secondary- prevention that lead to the early diagnosis of disease and, in some cases, cure… Tertiary prevention- once a disease becomes established, treatment 3. Review the differences between the sympathetic vs the parasympathetic nervous systems. What happens to the body during “fight-or-flight” response? Sympathetic- stressful stimulus and release of norepinephrine. Parasympathetic-rest/relax 4. Review the functions of the various organelles of the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosome, lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum- cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, has ribosomes attached and is involved in protein and lipid synthesis. peroxisome- breakdown of very long chain fatty acids through beta oxidation golgi apparatus- a complex of vesicles and folded membranes within the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells, involved in P a g e 1 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 s - secretion and intracellular transport.protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the 5. Review the difference between active and passive immunity, know examples for each type. A c t i v e imm un i t y -vacine ocurswhenindividualsareexposedtoantigen,whichconfe rslong-term protectionbut maytakeseveralwekstodevelop.)and (Passive immunity-Newborns receive IgA antibodies through breast milk. serotherapy, involves direct injection of antibodies into an unprotected person P a g e 2 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 . water,andelectrolytes(3)secretionofwastes orexcessubstances…How do we assess for renal disorders? ? BUN levels are used to monitor the progression of renal disease or to screen for occult renal insufficiency. Creatinineclearanceisfrequentlyusedtoases GFR BUNandcreatininearemeasured together,andtheratioisdetermined.Acutecha ngesinGFRarereflectedinahigherBUN-to- creatinine ratio,usuallygreaterthan20:1 14.What is cystic kidney disease? polycystic kidney disease, where cysts form in the kidneys. Genes code for proteins associated with the primary cilium 2types- autosomal- recesive(infant)andautosomal- dominant(adult)commonlyfoundinmen….What causes this condition? end stage renal disease 15.Review the following terms: nephrons- performingallfiltration,reabsorption,andsec retoryfunctions hematuria-- proteinuria- for biopsy, renal disease check.. nephrolithiasis-- -(stone) crystal ag regatescomposedoforganicandinorganicmateri als20and30years,loweramongAfrican AmericansandMexican…..pyelonephritis- -Chronic: smallatrophiedkidneyswithdiffusescaring andblunting.obstruction or ureteral reflux that allows contaminated urine to enter the kidney… cystitis-- inflammation of the bladder lining, may result from bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections 16.Review signs and symptoms of acute kidney injury (AKI). Review causes of AKI including prerenal- S/S- fluid volume overload, oliguria, low urinary sodium.. Intrinsic- S/S: declining urine output. postrenal. - Obstruction of the normal outflow of urine, more common in the elderly.Know examples of each type of injury. P a g e 5 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 17.What is compartment syndrome? trauma to soft tissue caused Why does it occur and what are the signs? decreased compartment size, increased compartment content, or externally applied pressure….Remember the 5 P’s-- Pain. Pressure. Paresthesia (numbness). Paralysis. Pulselessness 18.What are pressure ulcers? bedsores, are localized damage to the skin and/or underlying tissue.. How are the staged and how can we prevent them? Stage I:The skin is intact, Stage II: An open wound, Stage III: A deep wound- Deep damage may expose a fat layer, Stage IV: Large scale tissue loss- exposes bone, muscle or tendons. 19.What are electrolyte reservoirs? Electrolytes come from the food and liquids you consume. What electrolytes are found stored in bones? Ca P a g e 6 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 s - . . a . s ( , e 20.Review diseases of the bone including:Osteomyeliti- isaninfectioninabone…Osteosarcoma isa typeofbonecancerfoundinlongbonesOsteomal aci referstoamarkedsofteningofyourbones, mostoftencausedbyseverevitaminDdeficiency … Osteoporosi causesbonestobecomeweak andbrittle 21.Review disorders of the joints including: (Rheumatoid arthritis—CAUSE:Age, Family history, Environment, Gender, Obesity, Smoking. Pain. Inflammation, Stiffness) (Osteoarthritis- Heredity, Pain after overuse or after long periods of inactivity ,Stiffness after periods of rest,Bony enlargements in the middle and end joints of the fingers (which may or may not be painful) (Psoriatic arthritis- is a skin disease that causes a red, scaly rash, most often on your elbows, knees, ankles, feet, hands welling) (Gout-- caused due to accumulation of uric acid crystals, called urate, in the joints. Excess consumption of meat and seafood, 50 years of age Certain medications. Know causes and signs/symptoms for each. (done!) 22.Review endocrine disorders of the pituitary gland including: (Gigantism- over- production of growth hormone, estradiol,produced)(Dwarfism- Inadequatesecretionofthyroxinebythethyroi dglandor insufficientgrowthhormonesecretionfrom thepituitarygland Acromegaly- GH excess is called acromegaly, frequencyinmen)(Diabetes insipidus- deficientantidiuretichormoneverydiluteurin e andexcesiv thirst)(SIADH-- isasociatedwithpulmonarytumors,centralnervoussyste m disease,Exces ADH) 23.Review which organisms/viruses contribute to the following conditions: (Pelvic inflammatory disease-, cause gonorrhea or chlamydia infections) (Cervical cancer- main cause HPV-Verrucae, or warts (Fig. 53.4), are common benign papillomas caused by DNA-containing papillomaviruses) (UTI--) ( Herpes1. Kissing, 2 sexual contact )- (Syphilis-- Treponema pallidum, an anaerobic spirochete, sexual contact) P a g e 7 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 31.What are signs or increased ICP? The signs of increased ICP include: headache, increased blood pressure , confusion , double vision, pupils that don’t respond to changes in light, loss of consciousness, coma 32.Review the Glasgow coma scale, what is it used to assess?checks for impairment of conscious level in response to defined stimulus. Eye opening, Verbal response, Motor response, P a g e 10 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 33.Review the different types of stroke: ischemic-- blood vessel carrying blood to the brain is blocked or restricted versus hemorrhagic-blood vessel in the brain ruptures or breaks . How is stroke diagnosed?CT or MRI 1st step, blood test, ECG-EKG 34.Review the difference between meningitis-- infection to the outer layer of the brain, cause Bacteria, Viruses,Fungi, rash, DX blood . versus encephalitis- acute inflammation to the brain itself cause Virus, no rash, DX mri ct. 35.Review the different types of seizures- tonic-clonic or convulsive seizures or grand mal) absence seizures or petit mal, atonic seizures or drop attacks) (How are seizures diagnosed? Electroencephalogram (EEG), blood testing to check for electrolyte imbalances , a spinal tap rule out infection, a toxicology screening 36.Review the etiology of cerebral palsy-- disorder of movement, muscle tone or posture that is caused by damage that occurs to the immature, developing brain, most often before birth ) (Is cerebral palsy reversable? No,Lifelong condition, caused by a static, non- progressive lesion in the brain. 37.What causes Parkinson’s disease?Unknown toxic, genetic, head trauma, drug induced What does this condition affect? speech to your gait to your cognitive abilities, progressive nervous system disorder that affects movement 38.What are the major mechanisms of spinal cord injury? Impact, Laceration of the spinal cord How do we treat if we suspect someone has a spinal cord injury? To stabilize the spine. Traction, Analgesics: To relieve pain. Codeine . Hydrocodone . Oxycodone . Methadone P a g e 11 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 39.What happens with oxygen and carbon dioxide levels with hypoventilation? decreased levels of oxygen , increased levels of carbon dioxide Hyperventilation? (CO2) levels to decreasere, and increasing O2 40.Be able to identify normal versus abnormal ABG values— What is the normal pH range of blood? ph7.35-7.45 CO2 34-45 HCO3 23-30. Respiratory acidosis: low pH, high CO2 P a g e 12 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 45.What are different causes/types of emboli? (pulmonary embolism- deep vein thrombosis or DVT), lodges in one of the arteries of the lungs. Types-- brain embolism, fat embolism, air embolism. Causes-- smoking and heart disease-- cancer, previous surgery, a broken leg or hip 46.What are causes of anemia? blood loss, decreased production of RBC, and destruction of RBC. What are complications of anemia? tissue hypoxia. Shock, hypotension, or coronary and pulmonary insufficiency What is the goal in treating anemia? treated based on the cause 47.Review the following conditions of the blood including causes: (polycythemia- red cells are present in excess, increasing blood viscosity thrombocytopenia Caused by: lung and heart diseases, sleep apnea, tumors, dehydration,) (Disseminating intravascular coagulation (DIC)--- hemorrhagic syndrome in which both clotting and bleeding occur simultaneously . How do we treat DIC- Replacementofdepleted clotingfactorswithfreshfrozenplasma,pack edredblodcells,platelets,orcryoprecipita te 48.What hormone plays a role in RBC production? erythropoietin (EPO). What organ produces this hormone? Kidney(Formation in the bone marrow) 49.Review the difference between Hodgkin’s-dx’s Is early stages treatable, also begins in the upper body neck , armpits chest vs Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma-begins in lymph nodes dx’s Is later stages harder to treat.. How are these cancers diagnosed? 50.Review modifiable- Dietary factors, Sedentary lifestyle, Obesity/weight gain// nomodifiable —Family history,Age,Ethnicity/Genetics risk factors for hypertension. How is hypertension managed/treated? What medications are often prescribed to manage HTN? What are complications of hypertension if left P a g e 15 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 unmanaged? Stroke, atherosclerosis, MI, organ damage 51.What is the role of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in managing blood pressure? restore blood volume, Angiotensin 1 not strong enough Instead, converted to angiotensin II, much more powerful hormone to change blood act directly on blood vessels. 52.What is coronary artery disease? major blood vessels that supply your heart with blood, oxygen and nutrients (coronary arteries) become damaged or diseased P a g e 16 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10 53.What is atherosclerosis? a disease of the arteries characterized by the deposition of plaques of fatty material on their inner wall) How does plaque formation begin-- begins with damage to the endothelium and buildup of plague 54.Review the difference between (stable--- relieved by rest and nitroglycerin,(unstable angina -Unstable angina, myocardial ischemia, myocardial necrosis includes ST- segment elevation myocardial infarction 55. (STEMI)-- ST-elevation myocardial infarction, prolonged, part of the heart dies.. non-STEMI (NSTEMI)- partially blocked arteries are found within the heart 56.What diagnostic tool is used to identify acute coronary syndrome? Catheter based coronary angiography 57.Review the following terms: afterload- aortic impedance that the left ventricle must overcome to eject blood during systole, disease HTN) preload---amount of blood in the ventricle at the end of diastole, happens HF ) ( ischemia- insufficiency of oxygen cardiac tissue damage and death.. contractility- inherent state of activation of cardiac muscle fibers) ( cardiac output--the amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in 1 minute 58.Review the differences between left-sided-- Left ventricular failure most common Pulmonary congestion and pulmonary edema Dyspnea, dyspnea on exertion, Cough, respiratory crackles (rales), hypoxemia, and cyanosis/// versus right-sided heart failure--- congestion in the systemic venous system, Dependent peripheral edema, Ascites, Jugular veinous distention (JVD), Impaired mental functioning Hepatomegaly, splenomegaly know signs/symptoms for each. 59.What medications are used to manage heart failure? Digoxin, Pacemaker Angiotensin- converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors: P a g e 17 | 20 Essentials of Pathophysiology – Final Exam Review Sheet Modules 1-10