Global Migration & World Organizations: Remittances & Migration Laws - Prof. Ronald Wilfre, Study notes of Geography

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Review Sheet Exam 3 Lectures 14- Migration: the movement from one place to another whether is forced, internal, international, and voluntary migration.

• Emigration : a move from a particular location
• Immigration : a move to another location
• Internal Migration : a move within a particular country
• International Migration : a move to another country
• Trans-continental migration : movement of persons from one continent to another
• Immigran t: moves into
• Emigrant : moves out to
• Rural-to-rural migration : movement of people from one rural area to another
• Urban-to-rural migration : movement of people from urban areas to rural areas
• Rural-to-urban migration (MOST COMMON): most dominant pattern of migration
• Seasonal migration : movement of people from an area to another b/c of a seasonal demand for labor
• Transmigration : process when immigrants travel between their host & home country by bringing goods, cultural traits, &/or ideas
• Migrant : the person who is moving
• Refugee : a migrant who lives outside of their country but is unable or unwilling to return because of persecution
• Displaced : someone who is forced to move but has not cross an international boundary  Africa: 12.7mil displaced persons over 20 countries (most in world)
• Transnationalism : process created by migration by which immigrants participate directly or indirectly in circular migration. Establishing economic, political, social, cultural networks b/w the host country and the home country (remittances) -- Remittances : money that migrants send back to their families or countries.
• Growth poles : economic activities that are deliberately organized around one of more high-growth industries in a particular location.
• Brain Drain : migration of technically skilled and highly educated individuals from poorer states to wealthier ones.
• Chain migration : a chain migration is a process common to many immigrant groups, whereby one family member brings over other family members, who in turn bring their relatives and friends and occasionally entire villages. Why people move? Factors can include economic, political, cultural, natural/environmental reasons (x factor) Push factors: induce people to move out of present location -Human rights violations -Civil War -Political instability

-Economic crisis -Natural disaster Pull factors: induced people to move into a new location -employment opportunities -higher wages -reunite with family members -educational opportunities Why migration is a mathematical formula? Three different components that make up the migration formula: push factors, pull factors, gender Why Migrate? -economic factors -cultural factors (ethnic identity, religion, human rights) -political factors -environmental factors How has Mexico become one of the largest cities in the world?

• Population increase : Population began increasing in the 1930s when the mortality began declining and constant high fertility
• Transportation hub : grown as a result of being the center of the country’s road and rail network
• Manufacturing center : In 1960’s, manufactured over 40 percent of Mexico’s services.
• Media center : TV and radio is concentrated in the Mexico City influencing perception about city life with soap operas and TV shows
• Commercial agriculture : 1940s instead of supporting subsistence agriculture the government promoted commercial agriculture
• Unemployment : created unemployment high rates both in agriculture and mining
• Rural Migration : Since WWII, there has been massive migration from the rural areas to Mexico City, border towns, industrial towns, etc.
• Oil boom : In 1977, the city was booming from the oil profits. Migrants were coming at a rate of a thousand a day.
• Government policies : The Mexican government compounded the problem by abandoning any serious to regulate migration and environmental policies. (Resulting in Mexico City becoming the most polluted city in the world; for example in 1992 the air quality was so bad that officials were forced to close factories and eliminate cars)
• Government services : education, health services, government services, administrative services
• Economic recession : The boom of the 1970’s came to an end in the global recession of the global recession of the 1980’s leaving Mexico with the one of the highest foreign debts in the world. CURRENT STATE: -30 million people -population is denser than Tokyo -one of the largest cities in the world
  • Primate city: biggest city within that country (everything is compounded there)

What are issues facing the bordering towns in Mexico? -Environmental degradation -Inadequate infrastructure -Housing crisis -Over population -Migration to the U.S. -Crime -Drug activity -Low paying jobs -Taking advantage of women workers Why are border towns growth poles? Growth poles are defined as economic activities that are deliberately organized around one of more high-growth industries in a particular location (bordering towns)

• Migration (Tijuana, Mexicali, Nogales, etc. are bordering towns) -U.S.-Mexico relations a) Depends on US markets b) Tourism c) Employment d) Bracero program (1942-1964  bring seasonal Mexican workers to do farming while men are off to war) -Culturally, Physically, NAFTA -Historical origin of border towns, now ranches, railroads, etc. -Establishment of Maquiladora zones (free trade zones i.e. no taxes) a) In 1965 duty free Maquiladora zones were established to attract foreign industries to Mexico after the Bracero program ended b) Maquiladoras were only allowed to be placed 20 km from the border c) But by 1972 could be anywhere in Mexico except Mexico City d) Most Maquiladoras are electronic firms clothing manufactures and furniture making industries e) Women are working there, most are teens, 95% are women _** NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) **:_** Canada (natural resources), US (capital goods), Mexico (labor) What is the impact of remittances in Africa? Africa: Morocco receives most Greatest % of GDP = Guinea-Bissau Impact: significant portion of some nations’ GDP  w/o remittances economy would collapse What part/region of the world receives the most remittances and what country? Asia receives the most (Top 3: China, India, Mexico)

Migration laws: German Geographer EG Ravenstein  study of population change in Britain  Most migrants relocate short distance, remain in same country  Each migration current/patter produces counter current of less strength  Migrants going long distance usually go to major cities  Female are more migratory than makes over short distances, but men are more involved in international migration (however since 1990s, Mexican women account for half of illegal immigration to U.S)  Most migrants are adults  Large towns grow more through migrants than by natural increase  Major migration flows from rural to urban** Differences between migrant, displaced person, and refugee: Migrant : person who moves Refugee : migrant who lives outside country but unable or unwilling to return because of persecution Displaced person : persons forced to move but have not yet left their country Dry-feet Policy: if Cuban defector reaches U.S. shore safely they can pursue citizenship; however if they are caught in the water they are returned to Cuba. Lecture 15 – WORLD ORGANIZATIONS World Bank Purpose : The World Bank in 1999 was the major source of financing for development in the developing countries

1. To assist in the reconstruction and development of territories of members…
2. Facilitate the investment of capital for productive purposes…
3. To promote private foreign investment by means of guarantees or participation in loans
4. To supplement private investment by providing, on suitable conditions How to become a member:  Members have to purchase shares that are worth about $120,000 each  The minimum number of shares that a member nation must purchase is determined by the national economy. What are the benefits/impacts: -Receive loans for development of individual projects -Investment (most nations receive returns on investments in World Bank & their projects) -In 1999, World Bank was leading institution for economic development worldwide (1990 projects worth $148 billion  now its remittances) Controversies/Problems:

-Presidential corruption (Paul Woldowitz) -Blocking of $1 billion project in Africa because of corruption/bribes Changes: -Greatest portion of World Bank loads now go towards projects concerned with renewable energy or increased energy efficiency International Monetary Fund (IMF) Purpose:

1. Promote the health of the world economy
2. International monetary cooperation
3. World trade
4. To help countries with balance of payment problems How to become a member:  Membership is open to all independent nations  Just have to pay assigned quota whose value is based on the weighted average value of five major currencies; each member’s quota is an amount corresponding to its relative position in the world economy (Largest quota = U.S. w/ SDR 37.1 bil & Smallest quota = Palau w/ SDR 3. mil) What are the benefits/impacts: -amount of the quota subscription determines how large a vote a member will have in the IMF deliberations -how much foreign exchange a country may withdraw from the fund -how many loans it will receive in period allocations -may use foreign exchange for a certain time (5 years) to extricate itself from its balance-of-payments problem, after which the currency is to be returned to the IMF’s pool of resources ** Balance of payments – is the country’s record of economic transactions with other countries; countries encouraged to run balanced budget, decrease sovereign debt, & repay loans to foreign nations/members -The borrower pays a below-market rate of interest for the IMF resources it uses; the member whose currency is used receives almost all of these interest payments; the remainder goes to the fund for operating expenses.

• The IMF loans are given in condition that government adopts economic policies determined by IMF known as structural adjustment policy. Controversies/Problems: -IMF bailouts force structural adjustment, which often results in hard economic times -Voting restructuring -Large foreign exchange reserves in Asia as financial cushion -Venezuela & Argentina acting as IMF in Latin America (freeing members of IMF stipulations) aim to establish a new bank for nations frustrated with conditions imposed by the IMF Change:

-Vote restructuring to give more weight to small-quota members -Severe drop in loans because of severe adjustments -More advising than lending -Focus on how government interacts with financial markets (as well as currency imbalances) United Nations (UN) Purpose: -Provide forum where members can discuss:  international problems  regional concerns  provides a mechanism to end conflict (weak) How can you become a member: -Any country can become a member & have an equal vote in the General Assembly (almost every country in the world is now a member of the UN except Taiwan and Kosovo) What are the benefits/impact: -Sponsors over 40 programs & agencies aimed at fostering international cooperation with individual goals -Equal voting power -2nd^ largest international organization in terms of membership (FIFA #1) Controversies/Problems: -Member states have not surrendered authority to the UN -The world body is legally & effectively unable to make or enforce a world law -Nor is there a world police force -Rulings by the International Court of Justice are only enforced by countries that have agreed before hand to abide by it arbitration -Has no authority over the military forces of individual countries -Congo aid went to colonel who committed human rights abuses & murdered thousands of civilians Changes: Millennium Development Goals (eight MGDs by target 2015 created by the U.N)

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender and equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability (access to safe drinking water)
8. Develop a global partnership for development Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) -Reduce global poverty through the promotion of sustainable economic growth; U.S. government corporation -Key principles: reducing poverty through economic growth, good policies matter, operate as partners, focus on results -Gives out large sums of money

World Trade Organization (WTO) Used to be General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Started in 1948 Purpose:

- Members should work to cute tariffs -Eliminate barriers to trade -Open markets -Treat all countries the same in matters of trade How can you become a member: -All members have to agree on upholding two “liberal & unexceptional” principles known as the “ national treatment ”

1. All countries must treat foreign investment in their economy the same as domestic firms
2. Any concession granted to one trading partner of the WTO is extended to all What are the benefits/impacts:  Hosts a series of multilateral trade negotiations known as “ rounds ” -Decision making is generally based in consensus

• Each country has only one vote. Like the United Nations. UNLIKE THE WORLD BANK AND IMF WHICH ARE BASED ON WEIGHT OF THE COUNTRY

1. The agreements made within institutions have an impact on domestic economies throughout health, environment, agriculture etc.
2. Global markets and economies
3. Sustainable development
4. Alleviation of debt
5. Progress toward democracy
6. Technology transfer from develop to developing countries
7. Integrations into global markets Controversies/Problems:
8. National sovereignty can be threatened. (wto has too much power)
9. Defines manufacturing standards (also decides minimum wage, # of hours)
10. Environmental and labor regulations
11. Administers trade sanctions when a member has broken WTO rules Changes: 2008 rounds attempted to strike a deal on cutting tariffs & subsidies in agriculture & manufacturing goods before 2008 U.S. presidential elections; negotiators from rich countries want more foreign goods while developing countries are pressing wealthy governments such as the United States & the E.U to cut agricultural tariffs & aid to their farmers

Structural adjustment policy and impact on women ** The IMF loans are given in condition that the government adopts economic policies determined by IMF known as structural adjustment policy.

1. Sever spending reductions in government
2. Balance the budget
3. Eliminating trade barriers
4. Cutting social subsidies
5. Encouraging exports
6. Devaluing currencies
7. Removing artificial barriers to foreign investment
8. Price reforms
9. Wage restraints
10. Institutional reforms Impact on Women

1. Increased numbers of women look for income-generating work outside the home because of harsh economic conditions in the country.
2. Women also enter forms of employment where job security and benefits are few such as domestic service, and where their vulnerability to abuse is often high.
3. There is much evidence to suggest that SAP’s have to lead to a widening of wage differentials between men and women in all sectors of the economy.
4. In times of economic recession such as the ones that occur in the SAP’s women enrollment of girls in schools to save costs and to care for younger children.
5. Also, during times of food of insecurity women often eat less. Leading to a decline of women’s health and affects children if the women is pregnant or breast-feeding. -In Tanzania, cutbacks in public health services have led to an increase in under- five-years-old mortality from 193 per thousand in 1980 to 309 in 1987.
6. The shift to export crops encouraged by SAPs often does not benefit women. Women work in subsistence agriculture and would not benefit from a export oriented market.
7. Greater unemployment, decreased purchasing power, and cut-backs in social services result in women adopting strategies to make funds go further. Balance of payment: countries encouraged to run balanced budget, decrease sovereign debt, & repay loans to foreign nations/members Millennium Development Goals: target by 2015
8. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
9. Achieve universal primary education
10. Promote gender and equality and empower women
11. Reduce child mortality
12. Improve maternal health
13. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, other diseases
14. Ensure environmental sustainability (access to safe drinking water)
15. Develop a global partnership for development

Some limitations of United Nations :

• Member states have not surrendered authority to the UN
• The world body is legally and effectively unable to make or enforced a world law
• Nor is there a world police force
• Rulings by the international court of justice are only enforced by countries that have agreed beforehand to abide by its arbitration
• Has no authority over the military forces of individual countries Globalization  Definition: international regime in which the economic interests of multinational corporations & other non-state actors (IMF & the WTO) are coming to supersede the interests & power of individual states  Ricardo Petrella (a futurist for the European Union) “Globalization is creating two types of people cut across national boundaries, divided into the fast & the slow”  separated by access to computer-based information & communications technologies  Colin Leys defines new international regime as a world: –Dominated by multinational corporations. –Regulated by the International Monetary funds –Enforced by the military might of the United States.  other stuff : -opening of national economies to the flow of international goods, capital, & ideas -removes obstruction of movement of goods & creates conditions that are favorable for trading in which economies can expand -THINK ABOUT COUNTRIES AS FORTUNE 500 COMPANIES

Model Components (what is it?)

1. Capital
2. Cheap Labor
3. Infrastructure
4. Markets
5. Technology
6. Raw Materials/ resources
7. Governmental willingness Potential solutions to widespread problems of urbanization Economy of Latin America (ups and downs – roller coaster) Low at WWI (1910), high at 1920 (boom), low at great depression (1929-1932), high at 1930, low at WWII, and high at 1950’s… Recognize that the Latin American economies are similar to the western economies.** Example of 1920-1930 (what happened to Latin America economy) how it compares to today -1920’s (Growing): One crop economy/export cash crop -1930’s (Crashing): between 1929-1932 world trade shrunk by 60 percent. - Results of the Market Crashing and Great Depression

 Devaluation of Latin American currencies.  However, because prices for imported goods were high, it allowed Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile to increase market share in the region and expand manufacturing activities. Some economic programs in 1960s (ex. import substitution)  Import-Substitution Industrialization (ISI): This new approach led to an economic growth from 1950-1975. The idea was to create a national pride, discourage imports, and encourage manufactures of goods within the country.  Export-Oriented Industrialization (EOI): A policy designed to encourage the manufacturing industry to produce for foreign markets.  New Development Strategy: Latin American countries restructured their economies and adopted policies recommended by the IMF and World Bank. 1980’s  The Lost Decade

1. Oil prices increased
2. Too much borrowing money
3. High interest rates
4. Slow economic growth
5. Economy did not keep up with the population growth
6. Per capital decline
7. Less wealth distributed
8. Gap between rich and poor increased
9. Inflation rose.
10. Government cut back on social programs
11. Poverty level rose 1990: World Bank & IMF (the New Model) Structural Adjustment : mechanism used by financial organizations to assure loans What were the terms?

1. Devalued national industries
2. Freed restrains on imports
3. Encouraged export introduction
4. Privatized government owned industries
5. Cut back on government expenditures (it did not curtail military expanding but social programs)
6. Welcomed foreign investment by giving majority shares in the national industries
7. Reform labor regulations What where the consequences of Structural Adjustment?
8. Labor markets changed
9. Labor force changed
10. Rural to Urban population shifted

4. Role of the women changed -New job opportunities -lower birth rates -acquired goods -improve education -rising poverty levels -new jobs created (maquilas)
5. Migration
6. Agriculture diminished ex. 1970 to 1996 (50% to 25% of the economy) Sovereign Wealth Funds  Created to buy assets around the world  Two sources in which they fund their money- oil and trade surplus**  Chinese Investment Company (CIC)  5 th^ largest SWF ($300 bil)

- Management: the fund is an odd private-public mixture - Global investment strategy: to diversify China’s vast foreign exchange holdings which have been invested largely in: US Treasure bonds, Blackstone group and Morgan Stanely, and bought AES (an energy company) - China lost a lot of money because of the US recession Reasons for rising food prices

1. Trade Restrictions

• Cause: some major exporting countries have introduced or increased export taxes, bans and other restrictions on agricultural products to keep down domestic prices.
• Effect: Export restriction further strained already tight supplies and added pressures on prices.

2. Increased Demand in Asia

• Cause: Economic development and income growth in emerging countries, especially China and India, are changing what people eat. Diets are moving away from starchy foods toward more meat and dairy. In China, per capita meat consumption has increased 150 percent since 1980.
• Effect: More grain is needed to feed livestock, which means there is less for human food.

3. Weather

• Cause: Heat waves, droughts and excessive rain in big grain-producing countries have taken a toll on crops in the past several years.
• Effect: World cereal stocks have fallen, in part because of weather.

4. Bio Fuels

• Cause: The push to produce biofuels has increased demand for corn. The United States exports 66 percent of the world’s corn but has been increasing the amount of its crop used for ethanol.
• Prices of corn have increased more than 50 percent since last year. As a result, countries in Europe began importing cheaper sorghum for livestock feed instead of corn. This, in turn, raised the price of sorghum, a grain widely consumed by the world’s poorest people.

5. Fuel Prices

• Cause: Rising fuel princes. Ex. In May crude oil soared 17.4% in three weeks.
• Effect: It is costlier to produce and transport agricultural commodities. “Map of Africa”: are the stains that African girls often endure when they are menstruating and the rags or camel’s skin they use for protection fail. --Procter & Gamble created Girl Child Network to give pads to schoolgirls in Kenya; why? -Girls that use free pads today can turn to be paying costumers when they grow -They could persuade their mothers & aunts to use the product -When you need to change a culture, it’s a good strategy to start w/ younger generation -program sits well w/ Kenyan gov’t  it has cut tariffs on Procter’s sanitary pads (makes it cheaper for the pads to enter the country) -This program is giving the company a license to operate in Africa for all its products -Idea of keeping an African girl in school resonates strongly w/ consumers. Protect & Gamble is tackling the problem head on by creating Protecting Futures, a program that aims to:
• First build bathrooms,
• Educate teachers
• Distribute free pads in hope of keeping girls in school.

“Breast ironing”: in which women flatten adolescent girls' developing breasts, intending to protect the girls from the dangers of sex, consensual or otherwise. **Brazil Only Country in Latin America that doesn’t have a primate city