Final Exam Study Guide - General Psychology | GPSYC 101, Study notes of Psychology

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Final Exam Study Guide Chapter 1  Nature-nurture issue- the controversy over the relative contributions of biology and experience to the development of our traits and behaviors. Nurture works on what nature endows.  Biopsychosocial approach- considers the influences of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors. Each level provides a valuable vantage point for looking at behavior, and is an integrated viewpoint that incorporates various levels of analysis and offers a more complete picture of any given behavior or mental process.  Correlation- the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other. o Positive correlation- (between 0 and +1.00) indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease together. o Negative correlation- (between 0 and -1.00) indicates an inverse relationship, meaning that as one thing increases, the other decreases.  Clinical Psychology- a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.  Psychiatry- a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical drug treatments as well as psychological therapy. Chapter 2  Plasticity- the brain’s ability to modify itself after some types of damage. The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.  Spilt brain- a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.  Neurotransmitter- chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. Chapter 3  Consciousness- our awareness of our environment and ourselves.  Sleep apnea- a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings (stop breathing while sleeping).  Hypnosis- the social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another person (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.  Dissociation- a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. A split between different levels of consciousness, as vivid form of everyday mind splits.  Physical dependence- a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions, as the body responds to the drug’s absence, the user may feel physical pain and intense cravings.  Tolerance- having continued use of alcohol and other psychoactive produces a tolerance, the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effects.  Withdrawal- the discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing the use of an addictive drug. Chapter 4  Environment- every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. External influences (nurture) that defines us.  Temperament- a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. Heredity predisposes one quickly apparent aspect of personality or emotional excitability. Seems to be biologically based and tends to remain stable throughout life.  Evolutionary psychology- the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes, using the principles of natural selection; understanding human nature.  Individualism- giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identification (North America, Western Europe, Australia, or New Zealand).

 Collectivism- giving priority to group goals (often those of the extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly. Group identification can provide a sense of belonging, a set of values, and loyal friends (China, South Korea, Middle East).  Gender role- a set of expected behaviors for males or for females. Our expectations about the way men and women should behave.  Gender typing- the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.  Social learning theory- the theory that we learn social behaviors by observing and intimidating and by being rewarded or punished, assumes that children learn gender-linked behaviors by this. Chapter 5  Attachment- an emotional tie with another personal shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver or showing distress in separation. A powerful survival impulse.  Critical periods- an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.  Cognition- refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering, and communicating. Chapter 6  Sensation- the process by which out sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.  Perception- the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. Chapter 7  Classical conditioning- a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events (Pavlov).  Unconditioned response- the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth.  Conditioned response- the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.  Conditioned stimulus- a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.  Operant conditioning- a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher (Skinner).  Positive reinforcement- increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. o Term o Description o Example Positive Reinforcement Add a desirable stimulus Getting a hug, receiving a paycheck  Negative reinforcement- increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. IT IS NOT A PUNISHMENT. o Term o Description o Example Negative Reinforcement Remove an aversive stimulus Fastening seatbelt to turn off beeping  Observational learning- learning by observing and intimidating others.  Modeling- the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.  Mirror neurons- frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy, whose activity provides a neural basis for imitation and observational learning.

Chapter 8  Memory- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.  Encoding- the processing of information into the memory system, for example, extracting meaning. Getting memory into our brain.  Storage- the retention of encoded information over time.  Retrieval- the process of getting information out of memory storage.  Recall- a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test.  Recognition- a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. Chapter 9  Cognition- all of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.  Prototype- a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a proto-typical bird, such as a robin).  Heuristic- a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than algorithms.  Confirmation bias- a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.  Linguistic determinism- Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think, different languages impose different conceptions of reality. Chapter 10  Motivation- a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal.  Incentive- a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior (to lure or repel us).  Anorexia- an eating disorder in which a person diets and becomes significantly (15% of more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.  Bulimia- an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercising. Chapter 11  Catharsis- emotional release, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.  Type A- Freidman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger prone people.  Type B- Freidman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people. Chapter 12  Free Association- in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing (Freud).  Unconscious- according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware. Painful memories, often from childhood, could be retrieved and released in the unconscious.  Psychoanalysis- Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.  Id- contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

 Ego- the largely conscious “executive part” of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring please rather than pain.  Superego- the part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.  Internal/External Locus of Control o Internal- the perception that you control your own fate. o External- the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.  Learned Helplessness- the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.  Fixation- a lingering focus of pleasure seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.  Repression- in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories form consciousness.  Defense Mechanisms- in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. Chapter 13 & Chapter 14- Anything from the chapter or the lecture material is fair game!