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hindsight bias
tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one
would have forseen it
TERM 2
overconfidence
DEFINITION 2
tendency to be more confident than correct to overestimate
the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgements
TERM 3
critical thinking
DEFINITION 3
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and
conclusions; rather it examines assumptions, discerns
hidden values, evaluates evidence and asses conclusions
TERM 4
psychoanalysis/Freud
DEFINITION 4
unconscious conflicts due to psychological disorders; raise
conflicts to the surface
TERM 5
Behaviorism/Watson
DEFINITION 5
stimulus response relationships; observable behavior; 1920s-
1960s; animal research
Humanistic/Rogers and Maslow
positive psychology (therapy); personal growth; emphasis on
environment and acceptance; 1960s
TERM 7
cognitive
DEFINITION 7
emphasis on internal thought AND human behavior; applying
scientific method to inform internal processes; 1960s on
TERM 8
psychology's big question
DEFINITION 8
what's happening and why does it happen?
TERM 9
observational research
DEFINITION 9
naturalistic observation and lab observation
TERM 10
case study
DEFINITION 10
an observation technique in which one person is studied in
depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
cross sectional research
a study in which people of different ages are compared with
one another
TERM 12
longitudinal research
DEFINITION 12
over a long period of time
TERM 13
memory
DEFINITION 13
process of storing, manipulating, and recalling what has been
experienced
TERM 14
process of
encoding
DEFINITION 14
over learning, spacing effect, serial position effect, levels of
processing
TERM 15
effecting encoding
methods
DEFINITION 15
spacing effect rehearsal
mnemonics
organization of devices
TERM 17
interactive images
DEFINITION 17
having an image in your mind is more effective than not
TERM 18
method of
loci
DEFINITION 18
linking your common knowledge to new information (routes);
mentally routing
TERM 19
acronyms
DEFINITION 19
words out of letters
TERM 20
acrostics
DEFINITION 20
meaningful sentences
different levels of processing
penny example you remember more vividly information that
you rarely see and that you need to know for specific
purposes
TERM 22
how is memory stored
DEFINITION 22
rehearsal and necessary information
TERM 23
retaining memory/forgetting
memory
DEFINITION 23
avaliability may not be strong enough, encoding failure,
accesibility failure, decay
TERM 24
observational learning
DEFINITION 24
learning by observing others
TERM 25
unconditioned stimulus
DEFINITION 25
a stimulus that naturally triggers a response
unconditioned response
naturally occurring response to a UCS
TERM 27
neutral stimulus
DEFINITION 27
produces no response
TERM 28
conditioned stimulus
DEFINITION 28
neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after
being associated with a UCS
TERM 29
conditioned response
DEFINITION 29
learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned)
stimulus
TERM 30
phases of classical conditioning
DEFINITION 30
acquisition extinction spontaneous discrimination
acquisition
phase when learning occurs by association with a CS with a
UCS so that the UCS comes to elicit a CR
TERM 32
extinction
DEFINITION 32
reduced responding when the CS no longer signals
impending presence of UCS
TERM 33
spontaneous recovery
DEFINITION 33
reappearance after a pause of extinguished CR
TERM 34
generalizations
DEFINITION 34
tendency to produce a similar response when presented with
a stimuli similar to a CS
TERM 35
discrimination
DEFINITION 35
in classical conditioning the learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and stiumli that do not signal
an unconditioned stimulus
two examples of classical
conditioning
Little Albert Pavloch's dogs
TERM 37
psychologist with classical conditioning
DEFINITION 37
John B Watson
TERM 38
operant learning
DEFINITION 38
type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed
by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
TERM 39
reinforcements
DEFINITION 39
positive negative primary conditioned
TERM 40
positive
reinforcement
DEFINITION 40
addition of something you want
negative
reinforcement
subtraction of something you don't want to be taken
TERM 42
primary
reinforcement
DEFINITION 42
satisfies a basic need
TERM 43
conditioned
reinforcement
DEFINITION 43
isn't a basic need, but can condition one
TERM 44
punishment
DEFINITION 44
positive negative
TERM 45
positive punishment
DEFINITION 45
addition of something you don't want
negative punishment
subtraction of something you do want
TERM 47
observation learning famous research
DEFINITION 47
Bobo Dolls (Alfred Bandura) implications: how kids learn
behavior but there are exceptions
TERM 48
eyewitness testimony
DEFINITION 48
is taken more seriously than evidence
TERM 49
how should interviews after a crime be
conducted
DEFINITION 49
don't frame the question, have simultaneous and sequential
questioning
TERM 50
nuerons
DEFINITION 50
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
cell body
controls the main functions of the cell
TERM 52
dendrites
DEFINITION 52
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receives
messages and conducts impulses towards the cell body
TERM 53
axon with myeline sheath
DEFINITION 53
an extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal
fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to
muscles or glands
TERM 54
actions potential
DEFINITION 54
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down
an axon
TERM 55
Broca's Area
DEFINITION 55
controls language expression an area of the frontal lobe
usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle
movements involved in speech
Wernike's area
controls language expression an area of the frontal lobe
usually in the left temporal lobe
TERM 57
occipital lobe
DEFINITION 57
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head;
includes the visual areas, each receiving information from
the opposite visual field
TERM 58
how do psychologists tell if someone has an
underlying brain malfunction
DEFINITION 58
the don't have the strongest brain test results
TERM 59
transcrannial magnetic stimulation
DEFINITION 59
measures magnetic fields in the brain; non evasive
TERM 60
electroencephalogram
DEFINITION 60
EEG amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity
that sweeps across the brains surface; these waves are
measured by electrodes place on the scalp
what attracts infant's attention
most?
attend more to human like faces and face like pictures,
human voices, mother's smell, mothers sound, appears
learned
TERM 62
stimuli for infants
DEFINITION 62
respond to human and mother like things
TERM 63
Jean Piaget's cognitive development
DEFINITION 63
children have different perspective that adults and are not
little adults
TERM 64
intergrading new information
DEFINITION 64
assimilation vs. accommodation
TERM 65
assimilation
DEFINITION 65
interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's exisitng
schemas
accomodation
adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to
incorporate new information
TERM 67
Piagets 4 stage theory
DEFINITION 67
sensorimotor stage preoperatioanl stage concrete
operational stage formal operational stage
TERM 68
sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years)
DEFINITION 68
during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their
sensory impressions and motor activities
TERM 69
object permanence
DEFINITION 69
Object permanence is the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or
touched.
TERM 70
preoperational stage (2 - 6 or 7 years)
DEFINITION 70
during which a child learns to use language but does not yet
comprehend the mental operations to concrete learning
conservationism
principle that properties such as mass volume and number
remain the same despite changes in the form of object part
of concrete operationl stage
TERM 72
concrete operational stage (6 or 7 - 11 years)
DEFINITION 72
during which children gain the mental operations that enable
them to think logically about concrete events
TERM 73
formal stage (12-adulthood)
DEFINITION 73
the stage of cognitive development during which people
being to think logically about abstract concepts
TERM 74
3 levels of Kohlberg's Moral Development
Ladder
DEFINITION 74
preconvetional level conventional level postconventional
level
TERM 75
preconventional level
DEFINITION 75
morality self interest avoid punishment of gain concrete
rewards
conventional level
morality of law and social rules gain approval or avoid
disapproval
TERM 77
postconventional level
DEFINITION 77
morality of abstract principles affirm agreed upon rights and
personal ethical principles
TERM 78
Erickson's Psychosocial Development
DEFINITION 78
how you increase your abstract thinking
TERM 79
identity role confusion
DEFINITION 79
teens - 20s
TERM 80
intimacy isolation
DEFINITION 80
20s - early 40s
generativity stagnation
40s - 60s
TERM 82
integrity despair
DEFINITION 82
60+
TERM 83
cognitive developments with age
DEFINITION 83
starts to decline at the end of life
TERM 84
intelligence
DEFINITION 84
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from
experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to
new situations
TERM 85
crystallized intelligence
DEFINITION 85
one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to
increase with age
fluid intelligence
one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly tends to
decrease during late adulthood
TERM 87
main part to an eye
DEFINITION 87
retina photoreceptors rods cones
TERM 88
retina
DEFINITION 88
the light sensitive inner surfact on the eye, containing the
receptor rods and cones plu layers of neurons that being in
the processing of visual information
TERM 89
photoreceptors
DEFINITION 89
rods and cones that transfer what is vision
TERM 90
rods
DEFINITION 90
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray;
necessary for peripheral and twilight visions, when cones
don't respond
cones
retinal receptors cells that are concentrated near the center
of the retina and that function in daylight or in well lit
conditions; the cones detect fine detail and give rise to color
sensations
TERM 92
color vision theories
DEFINITION 92
trichromatic theory opponent process theory
TERM 93
trichromatic theory
DEFINITION 93
(Young and Helmholtz) human eye is dominatly responsible
for 3 colors (red, green, and blue) activiation of more than
one cone results in the sensation of seeing other colors
TERM 94
opponent process theory
DEFINITION 94
(herring) the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-
green, yellow-blue, and white-black) enable color vision;
some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red and
vice versa
TERM 95
sensations
DEFINITION 95
process by which our sensory and nervous systems receive
and represent stimulus energies from our environment
perceptions
process of organizing and interpreting sensory information,
enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
TERM 97
blind spot
DEFINITION 97
point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a
"blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
TERM 98
sleep deprivation studies in
students
DEFINITION 98
80% of students are dangerously deprived; higher risks of all
sorts of accidents and impaired performance; impaired
immune system
TERM 99
stages of sleep
DEFINITION 99
awake stage 1 stage 2 stage 3 stage 4
TERM 100
circadian rhythm
DEFINITION 100
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a
24 hour cycle
waves
alpha waves delta waves
TERM 102
alpha waves
DEFINITION 102
slow waves of a relaxes awake brain
TERM 103
delta waves
DEFINITION 103
large, slow wave of deep sleep
TERM 104
sleep in lifespan
DEFINITION 104
as you get older deep sleep gets shorter
TERM 105
repeatable sleep cycle
DEFINITION 105
each stage goes about 15-20-30-45 minutes
awake
mind and body are fully alert, fast EEG activity (alpha wave)
TERM 107
stage 1
DEFINITION 107
feeling drowsy, falling asleep, easy to wake up again,
slowing EEG activity (beta waves)
TERM 108
stage 2
DEFINITION 108
sleep spindles
TERM 109
stage 3/stage 4
DEFINITION 109
deep sleep, difficult to wake up, very slow EEG waves (delta
waves)
TERM 110
REM
DEFINITION 110
when youre falling asleep
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during
which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as
paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except
for minor twitches) but only other body systems are active
TERM 112
hypnosis
DEFINITION 112
a testable prediction; often implied by a theory
TERM 113
people with hypnosis
DEFINITION 113
usually have a high fantasy life
TERM 114
social influence theory
DEFINITION 114
persuasive effect that we have on one another
TERM 115
divided conscious theory
DEFINITION 115
we have different personalities for different situations
characteristics of addiction
strong craving, psychological dependence, physical
dependence, withdrawal, tolerance
TERM 117
depressants
DEFINITION 117
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
TERM 118
examples of depressants
DEFINITION 118
alcohol, benzodiazepines, opiates
TERM 119
characteristics of depressants
DEFINITION 119
relaxation, euphoria, analgesia, impaired coordination,
depresses neural firing
TERM 120
withdrawal symptoms of
depressants
DEFINITION 120
serious, potentially fatal, only treatable not fixable
opiates
opium and derivatives
TERM 122
stimulants
DEFINITION 122
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
TERM 123
examples of stimulants
DEFINITION 123
cocaine, amphetamines, caffeine, ecstasy
TERM 124
characteristics of stimulants
DEFINITION 124
blocks reuptake, caffeine, euphoria, empathy, sensory
enhancement
TERM 125
withdrawal symptoms of
stimulants
DEFINITION 125
psychological withdrawal
