Final | PSYC 1103 - General Psychology II (Enhanced), Quizzes of Psychology

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Motivation

• factors that influence the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior; an intervening variable TERM 2

Motive

DEFINITION 2

• a reason or purpose that may provide a single explanation for the occurrence of many different behaviors TERM 3

Intervening Variable

DEFINITION 3

• something that is used to explain the relationships between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses TERM 4

Optimal Arousal Theory

DEFINITION 4

• in general, people perform and feel best when arousal is moderate; optimal arousal levels vary from person to person TERM 5

Yerkes-Dodson Law

DEFINITION 5

• performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point; when levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases

Zajonc's Arousal Theory

• arousal is increased by presence of others; arousal increases tendency to perform dominant behaviors TERM 7

Incentive Theory

DEFINITION 7

• we behave in ways that allow us to get desirable incentives and avoid negative incentives TERM 8

Wanting

DEFINITION 8

• the process of being attracted to incentives; extreme being addiction TERM 9

Liking

DEFINITION 9

• the immediate evaluation of how pleasurable a stimulus is experienced TERM 10

Hedonistic Motivation

DEFINITION 10

• people are motivated to approach pleasure and avoid pain; PLEASURE-PRINCIPLE

Extrinsic Motivation

• a desire for external rewards, such as money TERM 12

Intrinsic Motivation

DEFINITION 12

• a desire to attain internal satisfaction TERM 13

Need For Achievement

DEFINITION 13

• a desire for mastery or effectance is the motivation to behave competently TERM 14

Individual Differences

DEFINITION 14

• people with a high need to achieve set challenging but realistic goals; people with low achievement needs seem to enjoy success because they have avoided failure TERM 15

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

DEFINITION 15

• people tell a story about an ambiguous picture that allows them to project their motives on to it

Learning Goals

• people with learning goals are concerned with getting better at something; they tend to be more persistent and less upset when they do not immediately perform well TERM 17

Performance Goals

DEFINITION 17

• people with performance goals are usually more concerned with how well they perform compared with others than they are about how to improve their performance; they tend to avoid challenges and quit in response to failure TERM 18

Development of Achievement Motivation

DEFINITION 18

• tends to be learned in early childhood, largely from parents; children with high motivation has parents who: encouraged children to try difficult tasks, offered praise and other rewards for success, encouraged children to find ways to succeed, prompted children to go on to the next challenge TERM 19

Subjective Well-Being

DEFINITION 19

• a combination of a cognitive judgment of satisfaction with life, the frequent experiencing of positive moods and emotions, and the relatively infrequent experiencing of unpleasant moods and emotions; most peoples subjective well-being tends to be remarkable stable throughout their lives; individual differences in happiness are more strongly associated with inherited personality characteristics than with environmental factors TERM 20

Important Factors in Generating Happiness

DEFINITION 20

• close social ties, religious faith, having adequate resources to allow progress toward ones goals

Deficiency Orientation

• those who try to seek happiness by trying to acquire goods or status that they think they need, rather than appreciating life itself and what they do have TERM 22

Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives

DEFINITION 22

• human behavior reflects a hierarchy of needs or motives; needs at the lower levels must be at least partially satisfied before people can be motivated by higher-level goals; five motives are: biological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization TERM 23

Existence, Relatedness, Growth (ERG) Theory

DEFINITION 23

• proposed by Alderfer (1969) to address some of the problems in Maslows Theory; places needs into three categories: existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs; does not assume that needs must be satisfied in a particular order TERM 24

Conflicting Motives &

Stress

DEFINITION 24

• motives that act at the same time complicate life and can create significant emotional arousal and other signs of stress TERM 25

Four Basic Types of Motivational Conflict

DEFINITION 25

• approach-approach conflicts, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance conflicts; multiple approach-avoidance conflicts

Emotions

• organized psychological and physiological reactions to changes in ones relationship to the world TERM 27

Subjective Experience of

Emotions

DEFINITION 27

• usually temporary, can vary in intensity and can be positive or negative or a mixture of both, alters thought processes, triggers an action tendency, are passions that you feel whether you want to or not; you cannot decide to experience a particular emotion TERM 28

Syndrome of Inter-related Components

DEFINITION 28

• each emotion has some degree of each of these five things: physiological activation, subjective experience, motor expression, behavioral readiness, cognitive appraisal TERM 29

James Peripheral Theory of

Emotion

DEFINITION 29

• also called the James-Lange Theory of Emotion; people experience emotion based on observations of their own physical behavior and peripheral responses; each particular emotion is created by a particular pattern of physiological responses TERM 30

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

DEFINITION 30

• involuntary facial movements provide enough peripheral information to create emotional experience

Control Question Test

• compares responses to relevant questions with those to control questions TERM 32

Directed Lie Test

DEFINITION 32

• compares physiological responses when lying to those when telling the truth TERM 33

Guilty Knowledge Test

DEFINITION 33

• tries to determine if a person reacts differently to information that only the criminal would know TERM 34

Polygraphs

DEFINITION 34

• not 100 percent accurate; psychologists and other scientists have expressed serious reservations about the use of such tests as evidence TERM 35

Cannons Central Theory

DEFINITION 35

• also called the Cannon-Bard Theory; emotion starts in the thalamus which then sends signals simultaneously to the autonomic nervous system and to the cerebral cortex, where it becomes conscious

Schachter-Singer Theory

• emotions are produced both by feedback from peripheral responses and by a cognitive appraisal of the nature and cause of those bodily responses; when physiological arousal from one experience carries over to affect emotion in an independent emotional situation, it is transferred excitation TERM 37

Schachter-Singer Study (1962)

DEFINITION 37

• cognitions are necessary for emotion: interpreting one's physiological arousal in terms of the social situation (angry, euphoric) TERM 38

Appraisal Theories of Emotion

DEFINITION 38

• our appraisals of the meaning of events are the psychological basis of emotion TERM 39

The Process of Appraisal

DEFINITION 39

• primary (is anything at stake?): goal relevance (is a goal at stake?), goal congruence (harm or benefit?), goal content/ type of ego-involvement (identity, competence, morality); secondary (how can I cope?): responsibility, coping potential, future expectancy TERM 40

Averill Studies (1983)

DEFINITION 40

• asked people to remember a recent episode of anger, he then asked a lot of specific questions about how they experienced this anger; found that people saw their anger as resulting from the unfair or unjustified actions of another person; aggressing against those we believe have done us wrong is considered fair and right

Association Between Adult Attachment &

Anger

• Study 1: examined attachment-style differences in self- reports of anger-proneness, anger expression, anger goals, and responses to anger; Study 2: assessed attachment style, physiological signs of anger, and attribution of hostile intent; Study 3: used a lexical-decision task for studying attachment-style differences in expected anger outcome TERM 42

Envy

DEFINITION 42

• when a person lacks what another person has and either desires it or wishes that the other did not have it TERM 43

Jealousy

DEFINITION 43

• when a person fears losing or has already lost an important relationship with another person to a rival TERM 44

Suspicious Jealousy (prototypical

jealousy)

DEFINITION 44

• threat is suspected; experience marked by fears and uncertainties TERM 45

Fait Accompli Jealousy

DEFINITION 45

• threat is certain and damaging; loss, sadness; wrongdoing by partner: anger, hurt; ones inadequacy: anxious; superiority of rival: envy

Guilt

• self-conscious, self-critical, negative emotion; closer to regret, If only I hadnt done that TERM 47

Shame

DEFINITION 47

• self-conscious, self-critical, negative emotion; closer to embarrassment more intense, self-defect? If only I werent that TERM 48

Innate Expressions of Emotion

DEFINITION 48

• newborns display some unlearned facial expressions; people in all cultures show similar facial responses to similar emotional stimuli TERM 49

Social and Cultural Influences on Emotional

Expression

DEFINITION 49

• there is a degree of cultural variation is recognizing some emotions and people learn to express certain emotions in particular ways as specified by cultural rules; social situations also influence emotional expressions TERM 50

Emotion Culture

DEFINITION 50

• rules that govern what emotions are appropriate in what circumstances and what emotional expressions are allowed; these rules can vary between genders and from culture to culture

Social Referencing

• the process of letting another persons emotional state guide our own behavior is called social referencing; ex: a movie...people think something is funny, and you dont, but when people start laughing so do you like Oh ya, this is funny TERM 52

Operant Conditioning

DEFINITION 52

• the use of a behavior's antecedent and/or its consequence to influence the occurrence and form of behavior; helps to shape the range of one's emotional expressions TERM 53

Social Psychology

DEFINITION 53

• the scientific study of how peoples thoughts and feelings influence their behavior toward others and how the behavior of others influences peoples own thoughts, feelings, and behavior TERM 54

Social Cognition

DEFINITION 54

• the mental processes associated with the ways in which people perceive and react to individuals and groups (both self and others) TERM 55

Self-Concept/Identity

DEFINITION 55

• the beliefs we hold about who we are and what characteristics we have

Self-Esteem

• the evaluations we make about how worthy we are as human beings TERM 57

20 Statements

Test

DEFINITION 57 -"in the twenty blanks below please make twenty different statements in response to the simple question (addressed to yourself), "Who am I?" answer as if you are giving answers to yourself, not to somebody else"; in more individualistic societies, people tend to describe themselves with more personal characteristics; in more collectivistic societies people tend to describe themselves with more social roles and group memberships TERM 58

Self-Schema

DEFINITION 58

• peoples beliefs and views about themselves and the attributes they possess; contain information about the future self or possible self TERM 59

The Role of Schemas

DEFINITION 59

• schemas: influence what we pay attention to and what we ignore, what we remember about others, affect our judgment about the behavior of others through top-down processing, which allows us to fill-in the gaps TERM 60

The Muhammad Ali Effect

DEFINITION 60

• "i am the greatest"

The Rosenberg Scale

• scale to assess self-esteem; it asks 10 questions about positive or negative self-regard and has people respond using a 5-point scale that runs from the number 1 (strongly disagree) to the number 5 (strongly agree) TERM 62

Terror Management Theory

DEFINITION 62

• proposes that humans cope with the anxiety of realizing that we will all eventually die by developing a variety of self- protective psychological strategies, including efforts to establish and maintain high self-esteem TERM 63

Levels of Self

DEFINITION 63

• individual level: intra-personal (or temporal), inter-personal, intra-group; group level: intra-group, inter-group TERM 64

Self-Categorization

DEFINITION 64

• seeing oneself as a member of a social group rather than as a unique individual TERM 65

Social/Group Identity

DEFINITION 65

• the way we feel about the important group memberships that we share with others

Social Identity Theory

• people derive self-esteem from positively valued group memberships TERM 67

Group Level of Self

DEFINITION 67

• group membership influences self-esteem; when our group succeeds we succeed TERM 68

Assimilation-Contrast Model

DEFINITION 68

• assimilation = minimize difference between entities; contrast = maximize difference between entities; TERM 69

Reference Groups

DEFINITION 69

• individuals use the in-group as a frame of reference"; members of a reference group provide relevant and meaningful comparisons for us, especially when: we are uncertain of ourselves, we are engulfed in the group, we strongly identify with and value the group TERM 70

Other-Schema

DEFINITION 70

• mental representations of our beliefs and views about other people

Social

Perception

• the processes through which people interpret information about others, form impressions of them, and draw conclusions about the reasons for their behavior TERM 72

Self-Fulling Prophecies

DEFINITION 72

• occur when, without our awareness, schemas cause us to subtly lead people to behave in line with our expectations.; four basic steps in a selffulfilling prophecy: adopting an attitude or making a decision concerning a person or group, behaving as though the decision or attitude is correct, the other person or group reacts to your behavior, the prophecy comes true, not because it is correct, but because of your behavior TERM 73

Attribution

DEFINITION 73

• the process people go through to explain the causes of behavior; in explanation; people tend to attribute behavior in a particular situation either to internal causes (characteristics of the person) or external causes (characteristics of the situation) TERM 74

Consensus

DEFINITION 74

• the degree to which other peoples behavior is similar to that of the actor TERM 75

Consistency

DEFINITION 75

• the degree to which the behavior is the same across time and/or situations

Distinctiveness

• the extent to which the actors response to one situation stands out from responses to similar situations TERM 77

Kellys Covariation Model

DEFINITION 77

• we pay attention to three types of information when deciding if attributions are internal or external: consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness TERM 78

Fundamental Attribution Error/

Correspondence Bias

DEFINITION 78

• people in Western Europe and North America seem to prefer internal attributions; appear to disregard the contextual explanations of behavior and attitudes and infer that other's act as they will; fundamental attribution error is a tendency to over-attribute others behaviors to internal factors such as personality traits TERM 79

Ultimate Attribution Error

DEFINITION 79

• a similar cognitive bias in which positive actions by members of an outgroup and negative actions by members of an ingroup are given external attributions; this helps maintain negative views of outgroups and positive views of ones own ingroup TERM 80

Actor-Observer Bias

DEFINITION 80

• the tendency to attribute others behavior to internal causes but attribute your own behavior to external causes, especially when the behavior is inappropriate or inadequate

Self-Serving Bias in Attribution

• the tendency to take credit for success (attributing it to internal characteristics) but to blame external causes for failure TERM 82

Unrealistic Optimism

DEFINITION 82

• the tendency to believe that positive events are more likely to happen to you than to others, whereas negative events are less likely to happen to you than to others TERM 83

Unique

Invulnerability

DEFINITION 83

• the feeling that tragedy is less likely to strike you than it is others TERM 84

Culture and Attribution

DEFINITION 84

• Joan Miller compared adults and children from U.S. (independent) and India (interdependent) in their attributions for a series of pro- social behaviors performed by other people (i.e., helping someone in need); adults from U.S. attributed causality to persons traits; other three groups made attributions to the situation, suggesting that Americans learn to use trait-based explanations with experience in their culture TERM 85

Attitude

DEFINITION 85

• the tendency to think, feel, or act positively or negatively toward objects in our environment; has three components: the cognitive component is a set of beliefs about the attitude object, the emotional, or affective, component includes feelings about the object, the behavioral component is the way people act toward the object

Attitude-Consistent Behavior

• most likely to occur when: the attitude is perceived to be important, behavior is consistent with a subjective norm, one has perceived control, one has direct experience with the attitude object TERM 87

Bems Self-Perception Theory

DEFINITION 87

• situations often arise in which people are not quite sure about their attitudes so they look back to their behavior under particular circumstances and then infer what their attitudes must be TERM 88

Problems with Self-Perception Theory

DEFINITION 88

• people adjust their attitudes to match their behavior even when they are unable to reflect on that behavior TERM 89

Changing Attitudes

DEFINITION 89

• usually requires more active efforts through mainly the form of persuasive messages; success depends primarily on three important factors: the person communicating the message, the content of the message, and the audience who receives it TERM 90

Elaboration Likelihood Model

DEFINITION 90

• two main routes by which persuasive messages can change attitudes, the peripheral route and the central route

Peripheral Route

• in this route we pay little attention to the central content of the persuasive message, instead we are affected by the persuasion cues that surround it, such as the speakers appearance, and confidence; people with a need for closure are uncomfortable with uncertainty and are more likely to use the peripheral route TERM 92

Central Route

DEFINITION 92

• the content of the message becomes most important; people with a strong need for cognition like to engage in thoughtful mental activities and are more likely to use the central route TERM 93

Dissonance Theory

DEFINITION 93

• posits that people are motivated to appear consistent to themselves and to others; people change certain attitudes to make them consistent with the other attitudes and behaviors that they care about TERM 94

Cognitive Dissonance

DEFINITION 94

• an unpleasant state caused by peoples awareness of inconsistency between attitudes or actions TERM 95

Interpersonal Attraction

DEFINITION 95

• situational factors: physical proximity, circumstances of first meeting; similarity between individuals: attitude similarity, preference for balanced relationship; physical attractiveness: matching hypothesis

Prototype of Love

• antecedents: another person loves the self, provides him/her of what she needs; psychological states and responses: wanting to give and be with the loved one / expressing positive feelings to the other person / seeking physical closeness with other one / eye contact, mutual gaze / feeling excited, high in energy, joyful, exuberant / feeling warm and secure, trusting / feeling relaxed and calm; facial expression: smiling; thoughts: being obsessed with the love object, forgetful and distracted / positive thinking TERM 97

Passionate Love

DEFINITION 97

• passionate feelings often intense, intrusive, changing sharply over time; men more romantic than women; romantic love more valued in independent cultures TERM 98

Companionate Love

DEFINITION 98

• less arousing but psychologically more intimate; it is marked by mutual concern for the welfare of the other TERM 99

Components of Intimate Relationships

DEFINITION 99

• interdependence: the thoughts, emotions, and behaviors of the one person affect the thoughts, emotions, and behaviors of the other; commitment: the extent to which each party is psychologically attached to one another and wants to remain in the relationship TERM 100

Interdependence

DEFINITION 100

• each partners thoughts, feelings, and behaviors influence the other; cognitive: partner becomes part of the self; behavioral: outcomes depend on partners behavioral decisions as well as ones own; affective: positive emotional bond of understanding and support

Factors Influencing Marital Satisfaction

• women, but not men, tend to be more satisfied when the partners talk a lot about the relationship itself; share one anothers view of themselves and each other; the perception that a relationship is fair and equitable TERM 102

Factors Leading to

Divorce

DEFINITION 102

• occur shortly after marriage: couples expressed both positive and negative feelings, but were unable to control the way they expressed those feelings, especially the negative ones; those that occur after many years of marriage: couples simply did not communicate any feelings creating emotional distance and a sense of isolation TERM 103

Stereotypes

DEFINITION 103

• the perceptions, beliefs, and expectations a person has about members of some group; they are schemas about entire groups of people; focus on observable person attributes, particularly ethnicity, gender, and age TERM 104

Prejudice

DEFINITION 104

• a positive or negative attitude toward an individual based simply on membership in some group TERM 105

Discrimination

DEFINITION 105

• the differential treatment of individuals who belong to different groups, is the behavioral component

Motivational Theories

• suggest that prejudice against certain groups might enhance their sense of security and help them meet certain personal needs; prejudice may result when peoples motivation to enhance their own self-esteem causes them to identify with their in-group and to see it as better than other groups TERM 107

Authoritarianism

DEFINITION 107

• composed of three elements: an acceptance of conventional or traditional values, a willingness to unquestioningly follow the orders of authority figures, an inclination to act aggressively toward individuals or groups identified by these authority figures as threatening the values held by ones in-group; authoritarians view the world as threatening TERM 108

Cognitive Theories

DEFINITION 108

• we use schemas and cognitive shortcuts to organize and make sense out of our social world TERM 109

Learning Theories

DEFINITION 109

• prejudices, like other attitudes, are learned from personal experience and from others TERM 110

Contact Hypothesis

DEFINITION 110

• stereotypes and prejudices about a group will diminish as contact with the group increases

Social Conditions Needed to Reduce Prejudice

• members of the two groups must be roughly equal in social and economic status, the situations must foster cooperation and interdependence, there must be reliance on one another to reach success on projects,contact between group members must be one-on-one, each groups members must be seen as typical and not unusual in any significant way TERM 112

Groups

DEFINITION 112

• two or more individuals that perceive themselves to be part of an entity TERM 113

Deindividuation

DEFINITION 113

• an explanation for group violence and other forms of anti- social behavior; when we are lost in a crowd, ex: KKK TERM 114

Social Facilitation

DEFINITION 114

• describes circumstances in which the mere presence of other people can improve performance TERM 115

Social Impairment

DEFINITION 115

• occurs when the presence of other people impairs performance

Norms

• learned, socially based rules that prescribe what people should or should not do in various situations; make social situations less uncertain and more comfortable TERM 117

Descriptive Norms

DEFINITION 117

• indicate how most other people actually behave in a given situation, thereby implicitly giving permission to act in the same way TERM 118

Injunctive Norms

DEFINITION 118

• give more specific information about the actions that others find acceptable and those that they find unacceptable, applying subtle pressure to behave accordingly TERM 119

Reciprocity Norm

DEFINITION 119

• an example of an injunctive norm; this norm is the tendency to respond to others as they have acted toward you TERM 120

Conformity

DEFINITION 120

• changing behavior or beliefs to match those of other members of a group, occurs as a result of real or imagined, though unspoken, group pressure

Compliance

• occurs when people adjust their behavior because of a request TERM 122

Explicit Requests

DEFINITION 122

• occur when someone asks you directly for something TERM 123

Implicit Requests

DEFINITION 123

• occurs when someone looks at you in a certain way to cue your behavior TERM 124

Public Conformity

DEFINITION 124

• behavior is altered to fit the socially desirable thing to do, but beliefs or attitudes do not change TERM 125

Private Acceptance

DEFINITION 125

• people are convinced that their own perceptions were wrong and so they alter their beliefs and attitudes