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FNH 350 (440 QUESTIONS WITH CORRECT ANSWERS) 2024-2025 UPDATED GRADED 100% PASS, Exams of Nursing

FNH 350 (440 QUESTIONS WITH CORRECT ANSWERS) 2024-2025 UPDATED GRADED 100% PASS FNH 350 (440 QUESTIONS WITH CORRECT ANSWERS) 2024-2025 UPDATED GRADED 100% PASS

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2023/2024

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Download FNH 350 (440 QUESTIONS WITH CORRECT ANSWERS) 2024-2025 UPDATED GRADED 100% PASS and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!

FNH 350 (440 QUESTIONS WITH

CORRECT ANSWERS) 2024-

UPDATED GRADED 100% PASS

What is glycemic load? - Exact answer Concept of glycemic load (GL) to address this limitation: Considers both quantity and quality of carbohydrate in a meal

  • GL = GI x grams of carbohydrate in a serving of food What are the 4 portions of the upper digestive system - Exact answer Oral cavity Pharynx Esophagus Stomach What are the 4 parts of the accessory organ group - Exact answer Salivary glands and tounge liver gallbladder pancreas What are the 4 things salivary glands release? - Exact answer water mucus enzymes electrolytes What do you mean by electrolytes? - Exact answer Antiviral and Antibacterial components What are the antiviral and antibacterial components of saliva? - Exact answer IgA Lysozyme Lysis (destroys cell wall of bacteria) What does salivary amylase do? - Exact answer breaks down carbohydrates by hydrolyzing internal alpha bonds in starch

What does lingual lipase do? - Exact answer Breaks down dietary triglycerides and converts them to fatty acids What is an interesting thing about lingual lipase? - Exact answer Diminishes with age most active in infants At what PH is lingual lipase most active? - Exact answer Within the acidic environment of the stomach- does most of the digestion in the stomach How long is the esophagus? - Exact answer 10-25 cm Three stages of passage of the bolus - Exact answer voluntary Pharyngeal Esophageal What is the gastesophageal sphincter - Exact answer Entrance to the stomach Controlled by nervous system There are three stages of swallowing, what are they? - Exact answer Voluntary Pharyngeal Esophageal What is the pharynx? - Exact answer the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus. What is the voluntary stage? - Exact answer Reflex response initiated by a voluntary action and regulated by the swallowing center in the medulla How do you swallow? - Exact answer The esophageal sphincter relaxes, allowing it to open and food then goes through What happens during the pharynxeal phase? - Exact answer During the pharyngeal phase, the vocal folds close to keep food and liquids from entering the airway. The larynx rises inside the neck and the epiglottis moves to cover it, providing even more airway protection.

How does peristalsis work in the esophagus? - Exact answer The striated (voluntary) and smooth (involuntary) muscles of the distal portion are stimulated by the nervous system The stomach consists of 4 regions that are... - Exact answer cardia fundus body atrium What is the function of the atrum? - Exact answer Grinds food and mixes with gastric juices to form chyme strong peristalsis for gastric emptying What is the function of the stomach body? - Exact answer gastric juice secretion mixing of bolus with circular, longitudinal, diagonal smooth muscle What are the 4 secretion cells of the stomach mucosa? What do they secret? - Exact answer Neck cells = alkaline mucus to protect the lining from acidity Parietal cells cells = HLC for acidity and IF for B12 absorption Chief cells = enzymes- pepsinogen and gastric lipase G cells = gastrin production which stimulates chief and parietal cells So there is this feedback of G cells further stimulating chief and parietal cells What does gastrin do? - Exact answer Gastrin is a peptide hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric acid (HCl) by the parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility 4 functions of HCL - Exact answer - denatures proteins

  • Activates pepsinogen to pepsin -Releases nutrients from organic compounds -Antibacterial

How does chyme leave the stomach? - Exact answer The pyloric sphincter Why does pepsin need to be activated? What activates it? - Exact answer Activated by HCL in the stomach, you do not want it to be active within the mouth or else pepsin will digest the lining of your mouth Whats the first phase of gastric secretion regulation? - Exact answer When you first eat, drink etc, Ach is secreted from parasympathetic nerves in the digestive system which causes Gastrin is secreted from G cells and stimulates chief cells to produce enzymes Whats the second phase of gastric secretion regulation? - Exact answer When ingested food reaches the stomach there is distension of the stomach which stimulates the PSymp NS and causes greater gastric secretions, Caused also by stimilation of chemoreceptors. What is the third phase of gastric secretion regulation? - Exact answer When food enters the duodenum, the lowering in chyme volume and reduction in PH of gastric juices, releases somatostatin by D cells in the pancrease, atrium, duodenum. Diminishes parietal and chief cell secretion What are the three parts of the SI - Exact answer 1. Duodenum

  1. Jejunum
  2. Ileum what is the folding patters - Exact answer folds villi enterocytes microvilli brush border - Exact answer Surface of a cell covered with microvilli. increases surface area of a cell for absorption Where absorption occurs mucus, H2O, enzymes produced by enterocytes Digestion is usually completed... - Exact answer In the brush border, but it sometimes occurs in the cytoplasm of enterocytes How does mixing occur in the SI? - Exact answer circular muscles alternate contracting and relaxing!!

What are three secretory products of the duodenum? - Exact answer alkaline and viscous mucus -protects mucosa from damage -neutralizes acidic chyme secretin -inhibits gastric secretion -stimulates pancreas and gallbladder secretions somatostatin -released by D cells in the duodenum, pancreas, and atrium of the stomach -diminshes active cells of stomach Parietal and chief How does propelling work in the small intestine? - Exact answer circular muscles contract and then longitudal relax, then they reverse this What are the secretions of the pancreas? - Exact answer -exocrine digestive enzymes and bicarbonate -endocrine hormones (insulin, glucagon) The liver is formed by cells called - Exact answer hepatocytes The hepatic portal vein will.. - Exact answer takes nutrient rich blood from the digestive tract and pancreas to the liver Blood passes through plates of liver cells called? Why? - Exact answer Sinosoids Allows blood from the portal vein and hepoatic artery to mix What does the portal vein do? - Exact answer brings nutrient rich blood from the intestines to the liver What does the hepatic artery do? - Exact answer carries oxygenated blood to the liver What does the hepatic portal vein do? - Exact answer carries nutrient-rich blood from the capillaries of the villi to the liver, then to the heart

What does the hepatic vein do? - Exact answer takes deoxygenated blood away from the liver. What does the gallbladder do? - Exact answer concentrates, stores, secretes bile What is bile? - Exact answer Produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder till its released into the small intestine. What does it contain? - Exact answer bile acids, salts cholesterol, phospholipids, bile pigment How is bile released? - Exact answer 1. made in liver, stored in gallbladder

  1. CCK is released by the duodenum when there is a sense of food in the SI. Causes gallbladder to contract.
  2. When gallbladder contracts, bile is released to cystic duct which joins common bile duct
  3. aids in lipid digestion, emulsifying
  4. reabsorbed and go to liver via hepatic portal vein What is the valve between the illiuem and the cecum? - Exact answer Ileocecal valve What is the path of a bolus in the large intestine? - Exact answer ascending, traverse, descending, sigmoid sections How can nutrients be absorbed by enterocytes? - Exact answer • Diffusion
  • freely passes
  • Facilitated diffusion - channels
  • Active transport - the use of ATP and Na+ Pinocytosis - movement due to engulfment What is a monosaccaride? - Exact answer Simple sugars with between 3 and 7 carbons The most common being glucose What is cholocystokinine - Exact answer Released by cells in the duodenum in response to chyme presence in the small intestine, stimulates the gall bladder to contract and this will release bile into the duodenum.

What is a disaccharide? - Exact answer Two sugars connected through a covalent glycolytic bond Most common is sucrose Soluble in water Three examples of disaccarides - Exact answer sucrose lactose maltose Maltose in linked by a - Exact answer alpha 1-4 glycosidic bond Alpha lactose in linked by - Exact answer A beta 1-4 glycosidic bond Because both anomeric carbons take part in the bonding, there is no alpha or beta What are two interesting characteristics of sucrose - Exact answer commonly used artificial sweetener glycosidic bond involves the hydroxyl on both residues What is an oligiosaccaride - Exact answer contains 3- monosaccharides. Trisaccharide, tetra-, penta- etc!! What forms sucrose? - Exact answer glucose + fructose What forms lactose? - Exact answer glucose + galactose What forms maltose - Exact answer Glucose and glucose What is a polysaccaride - Exact answer • Polysaccharides - several to thousands of monosaccharides. Glycogen, starch or cellulose, which are all made up of glucose. So what are the two types of simple carbohydrates? - Exact answer Mono and Di

How do you name the monosaccarides? - Exact answer Keto or aldo followed by how many Ketohexose etc. What does L vs D mean? - Exact answer D is on the right and L the left of the chiral centre What about alpha vs beta? - Exact answer Beta is up and alpha is down What can you say about pentose? - Exact answer Very little source of dietary energy only avilable in the diet Can form through hexoses Tranformed to metabolically important compounds What are three examples of oligiosaccarides - Exact answer raffinose (trisaccharide) stachyoses (tetrasaccharide) verbascose (pentasaccharide) are all made of glucose, galactose, fructose What foods are oligiossacarides found in - Exact answer beans, peas, bran, whole grain What are dextrins? - Exact answer • oligo- or polysaccharides depending on the chain length

  • composed of glucose
  • additives in foods, pharmaceuticals and nutritional supplements
  • from hydrolysis of starch or glycogen Three polysaccarides - Exact answer starch glycogen cellulose Talk about starch - Exact answer exists in the form of amylose + amylopectin (branched), present in whole grain, potato, various legumes Talk about glycogen - Exact answer storage form of glucose (liver and skeletal muscle)

Talk about cellulose - Exact answer not digestible as an energy source, considered fibre What are two types of starches - Exact answer amylose amylopectin What is amylose made of? - Exact answer Two alpha-glucose molecules with 1,4 glycosidic bonds. What is amylopectin? - Exact answer Branched form glycogen - Exact answer even more branches What is a food source of oligiosaccarides - Exact answer beans and grains What food source can we use to access galactose? - Exact answer Cannot be isolated What is the form of carbohydrates that erythrocytes can actually absorb? - Exact answer Mono Where is alpha amylase released? - Exact answer In the saliva by the salivary glands within the oral cavity What does alpha amylase do? - Exact answer hydrolyzes alpha 1, glycosidic bonds What is a glycosidase? - Exact answer The hydrolytic enzymes involved in carbohydrate absorption At what PH is the enzyme alpha amhylase most active? - Exact answer PH 6. What does alpha amylase actually do? - Exact answer cuts alpha 1, glycosidic bonds What is the only enzyme that breaks down carbs in the stomach? - Exact answer Alpha amylase

What does amylose and amylopectin become when treated with salivary amylase? - Exact answer Dextrins What does pancreatic amylase do? - Exact answer cuts alpha 1, glycolytic bonds as well! What does pancreatic amylase do to dextrins, of amylose and amylopectin? - Exact answer Amylose = maltose amylopectin = maltose, maltotriose, limit dextrins What allows pancreatic amylase to work so effectively? - Exact answer pancreatic bicarbonate Hydrolysis stop BLANK residues.... - Exact answer 4 residues away from the alpha 1-6 bond What digests limit dextrins? - Exact answer alpha dextrinase/isomaltase at the brush border which cuts both alpha 1,4 and 1,6 bonds How are glucose and galactose absorbed? - Exact answer 1. The SGT binds glucose and sodium, must bind sodium first

  1. Sodium moves down its concentration gradient - internal Na is low
  2. as intracellular concentrations of glucose increase, it binds to GLUT
  3. this will facilitate uptake of glucose and delivery to the hepatic portal vein
  4. sodium is pumped out by the Na/k Atpase
  • this will keep concentration in check When there is a lot of glucose in the cell where does it go? In what amounts? - Exact answer 15% diffuses to the lumen 25% goes to the blood stream by simple diffusion 60% goes by facilitated diffusion Once leaving the mucosal cells, glucose and galactose - Exact answer are quickly transported to the liver via the portal vein and taken up by hepatocytes by facilitated diffusion

Glucose goes to the main circulation, but what happens to galactose? - Exact answer • Galactose is phosphorylated in the hepatocytes = 'trapped' in the liver. Galactose can be converted into glucose derivatives: enter glucose metabolism and stored as liver glycogen. When you have a high carb diet, what effect does this have on GLUT2? - Exact answer It starts to show up on the brush border What happens to galactose once it gets into the hepatocyte of a liver cell? - Exact answer It is phosphorylated and "trapped in the liver" Can be converted to glucose derivatives Never gets into main circulation Talk about fructose absorption - Exact answer 1. Glu5 supports intake on the brush border membrane

  1. Moved into blood by GLUT
  2. quickly transported to the liver
  3. Phosphoylated and trapped by hepatocytes
  4. concentrations kept low
  5. So the cycle continues Some people are sensitive to fructose, what should they do? - Exact answer -More fructose can be absorbed in combination with high glucose intake: Disaccharidase-related transport system -Less intestinal discomfort when fructose and glucose consumed together; or fructose in mixed diet. -Balancing dietary fructose and glucose can mitigate clinical symptoms for those individuals with apparent sensitivity to fructose. -Glucose helps with sucrose absorption, because the lack of absorption is what causes the problem `How does glucose enter epithelial cells, including within the small intestine or kidney? - Exact answer SGLT / active transport is required Nearly all cells in the body allow glucose to enter via.. - Exact answer Facilitated diffusion through GLUT help

Why can't glucose just diffuse? - Exact answer It is HIGHLY polar, this makes membrane crossing hard Talk about GLUT5 - Exact answer interesting transporter = present in mucosal cells and responsible for absorption of fructose in the mucosal cells of the small intestine. NOT GLUCOSE. Expressed primarily in the small intestine. Talk about GLUT4 - Exact answer responsible for insulin dependent uptake of glucose (muscle, heart, brown and white adipose tissue, kidney) Glucose needs to be present for GLUT4 to be active Talk about GLUT2 - Exact answer is present on the basolateral membrane of mucosal cells, when there is a lot of carbohydrates it is also present on the brush border. High insulin levels will cause this guy to leave the plasma membrane and return to the vesicles in the cell. Talk about GLUT1 - Exact answer is responsible for uptake of glucose in the brain, Erythrocytes and the CNS Define the difference between absorption vs uptake - Exact answer absorption would happen within mucosal cells (ie small intestine) and uptake will happen for the blood What is an acute measurement of blood glucose? - Exact answer Plasma glucose concentrations Measured with glucometer Talk about GLUT1 deficiency - Exact answer Rare genetic disorder 500 cases worldwide GLUT1 is responsible for transport of glucose through blood brain barrier; gene mutation leads to lack of transport protein and "glucose deficiency in brain" Symptoms related to cognition, behaviour and movement Erythrocyte glucose uptake test = diagnostic tool for GLUT1 Deficiency: Low rate of glucose uptake in erythrocytes indicates GLUT1 deficiency

What is a long term measurment or parameter of blood glucose? - Exact answer HbA1c = Hemoglobin A1c Glycated Hemoglobin Test (whenever this is high, there is too much blood glucose) What are acute symptoms of hyperglycemia? - Exact answer dehydration What are chronic symptoms of hyperglycemia - Exact answer Glycosylation of proteins Ha1c Organ damage In order to increase blood glucose levels, the body will do two things.. - Exact answer Glycogenolysis (glycogen breakdown) Gluconeogenesis (Glucose synthesis) What is the glycemic index? - Exact answer increase in blood glucose level over the baseline level during a 2-hour period following the consumption of a defined amount of carbohydrate (usually 50g) compared with the same amount of carbohydrate in a reference food. What happens in the body when blood glucose becomes too elevated? 4 things mainly - Exact answer 1. Elevated blood glucose

  1. B cells in pancreas release insulin
  2. Glucose transported into cells with GLUT4 help
  3. Conversion of glucose to glycogen! This is called glycogenesis What happens when the body senses low blood glucose? 5 things mainly - Exact answer 1. Low blood glucose
  4. Alpha cells in pancreas release glucagon
  5. Adrenal glands release glucocorticoids (cortisol)
  6. Breakdown of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis)
  7. Increased synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis) In order to decrease blood glucose levels the body will do 5 things - Exact answer • Glycolysis/TCA- turns glucose to energy
  • Glycogenesis-(glycogenesis)
  • Hexose mono-phosphate shunt
  • Fatty acid synthesis
  • Urine excretion Glucose disposal is stimulated by - Exact answer • Insulin
    • Insulin independent pathways - a different way to get rid of insulin when there is too much Glucose production is stimulated by - Exact answer • Glucagon
    • Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine) -Glucocorticoids (cortisol) What is the glycemic index? - Exact answer increase in blood glucose level over the baseline level during a 2-hour period following the consumption of a defined amount of carbohydrate (usually 50g) compared with the same amount of carbohydrate in a reference food. When you diagram a high blood glucose spike, why does the diagram eventually dip below normal? - Exact answer Because there is so much insulin, it takes a bit to recover to normal levels upon insulin release 3 ways to calculate glycemic index - Exact answer • Reference = Area- under-the curve (AUC) for 50g glucose
  • Food product = AUC for 50g carbohydrates
  • Glycemic Index = AUC Food/AUC Glucose x 100 What is the concept of GL? How do you calculate it? - Exact answer Concept of glycemic load (GL) to address this limitation: Considers both quantity and quality of carbohydrate in a meal
    • GL = GI x grams of carbohydrate in a serving of food What is glycolysis in the simplest terms? - Exact answer The oxidation of glucose What is the TCA cycle - Exact answer The oxidation of pyruvate and acetyl-CoA to CO2 and H2O What is the primary role of glycolysis in energy production? - Exact answer It is the initial reaction in the oxidation of glucose Leads to two pyruvate

What is step one of glycolysis in the liver?? - Exact answer Glucose to G6P stimulated by glucokinase What are 3 qualities of this reaction?? - Exact answer induced by insulin no negative feedback Reaches max speed at max glucose blood levels What is the first step of glycolysis within the muscle, adipsoe tissue and brain? - Exact answer Glucose to G6P How can you form glycogen? From Glucose? - Exact answer Glucose --> G6P ---> G1P which is used to form glycogen through glycogenesis What is step two of glycolysis? - Exact answer G6P to F6P to F16dP What is the enzyme that converts F6P to F16bP? - Exact answer Phosphofructokinase What does phosphofructoskinase 2 do? - Exact answer Well, what happens here is that F6P can activate PFK2 which will then convery F6P to F26biphosphate This then activates PFK What happens to phosphofructokinase 2 that inhibits glycolysis - Exact answer Glucagon levels rise and convert phosphofructokinase 2 to fructose biphosphatase 2 inhibits activity of phosphofructokinase What is step 3 of glycolysis? - Exact answer F16bP turns to DHAP and G3P What happens in step 4 of glycolysis? - Exact answer G3P goes through several steps to eventually end up with PEP

Pyruvate kinase will convert PEP to pyruvate by SLP What is substrate level phosphorylation? - Exact answer The direct transfer of a phosphoryl group to ADP to form ATP What speeds up pyruvate kinase? - Exact answer AMP F16bP What inhibits pyruvate kinase - Exact answer ATP, acetyl CoA, alanine What is the effect of glucagon on pyruvate kinase? - Exact answer Activates a camp protein to phosphorylate it and thus inactivate it What are the 4 fates of pyruvate? - Exact answer go the the TCA cycle Form amino acids (alanine) Form glucose again (gluconeogenesis) form lactate How much ATP is made in glycolysis? - Exact answer if no O2 then 2 ATP If there is O2 then 7 ATP Does fructose regulate the speed of glycolysis? - Exact answer No, it does not affect the speed at all What is the main way that fructose enters glycolysis? - Exact answer Fructose is converted to F1P and then glyceraldehyde and DHAP by Fructokinase That is in the liver, but what about in a muscle or kidney cell? - Exact answer Hexokinase converts it to F6P What are three things that fructose can become in the liver? - Exact answer pyruvate Lipids glucose (glucogenesis)

What happens in animal models with lipogenesis? - Exact answer High consumption of fructose (up to 60% of energy intake) leads to non-alcoholic fatty liver and obesity. What happens in human models with lipogenesis? - Exact answer High fructose consumption can induce hyperlipidemia, especially in those with metabolic syndrome (i.e., existing hyperlipidemia) What is the main goal of the TCA cycle? - Exact answer The main goal is to produce high energy electrons through substrate level phosphorylation, which are then transported to the electron transport chain, where energy is produced. what is the first step in the TCA cycle? - Exact answer conversion of pyruvate to ACoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase What activates pyruvate dehydrogenase? - Exact answer insulin pyruvate ADP NAD What inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase? - Exact answer ACA ATP NADH What are the 5 regulatory enzymes of the CAC? - Exact answer isocitrate dehydrogenase alpha-ketogluterate dehydrogenase Succinyl CoA synthase succinate dehydrogenase Malate dehydrogenase What does isocitrate dehydrogenase do? - Exact answer Produces NADH What does alpha ketogluterate dehydrogenase do? - Exact answer Produces NADH What does succinyl-coa synthase do? - Exact answer Performs SLP

What does succinate dehydrogenase do? - Exact answer produces FADH What does malate dehydrogenase do? - Exact answer produces NADH What is the end amount of ATP after the TCA cycle - Exact answer 32 ATP under anearobic conditions in glycolysis we produce how many ATP? - Exact answer 2 ATP under aerobic conditions how many ATP are produced? - Exact answer 5 ATP What is the function of the glucose monophosphate shunt? - Exact answer

  1. To produce pentose phosphates - RNA, DNA, NADH
  2. Reduced to cosubstrate NADH- used for biosynthesis of fatty acids, maintenance of reducing substrates in erythrocytes, drug metabolism in the liver Activity of the HMP is high in - Exact answer liver adipose tissue adrenal cortex Lactating mammary glands WHY? -All producing fatty acids and so high demand What three tissues are particularly dependent on glucose? - Exact answer Brain Erythrocytes CNS How does a cell skip the pyruvate to PEP step in gluconeogenesis? - Exact answer - Well we can convert it to oxaloacetate in the mitochondria
  • But it cannot leave
  • so therefore we convert it to malate and then shunt malate out and convert it to oxaloacetete and then PEP Kinases - Exact answer Add phosphate group

Phosphatases - Exact answer remove phosphate groups How do we convert F16bisp to F6P? - Exact answer Fructose 1, biphosphatase How do you convert G6P to Glucose? - Exact answer Glucose 6 phosphatase Glucose 6 phosphatase is only expressed in the - Exact answer Liver and the kidney - these are also the only organs that can contribute to blood glucose When we exercise and oxygen depletion takes place in the liver, what will happen? - Exact answer lactate will be produced within the muscle it will then be transported to the liver Upon transport to the liver it will begoing through gluceoneogenesis Then transported back to the liver to go through glycolysis After exercising what will occur then? - Exact answer When you are done exercise... there will be a shift and glucose will simply form glycogen This occurs through conversion of glucose to G6P and then G1P and then glycogen How much of the body's glycogen is stored in muscle? - Exact answer 75% the rest of glycogen is contained within... - Exact answer erythrocytes Liver adipose tissue What are the steps of glycogenesis? - Exact answer 1. glucose is converted into glucose-6-phosphate

  1. glucose-6-phosphate is converted into glucose-1-phosphate
  1. glucose-1-phosphate is added to a UDP
  2. UDP glucose is added to glycogen Lactate gets into the circulation by two main organs - Exact answer Brain Erythrocytes How do we deal with the lactate? - Exact answer Package as glycogen What does the liver do to deal with lactate? - Exact answer Convert it to G6P by gluconeogenesis Then convert to glycogen Glycogenin is what? - Exact answer It acts as a glucose primer Glycogen synthase can then produce unbranched glycogen What hormones control the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase? - Exact answer Insulin! Insulin will dephosphorylate it What is glucogolysis - Exact answer cleavage of glucose molecules one at a time What regulates glycogenolysis? - Exact answer Glucagon Catacolamines and epinephrine What does glycogen phosporylase do? - Exact answer alpha 1- glycosidic bonds What does the debranching enzyme do? - Exact answer cleaved alpha 1- glycosidic bonds Glycogen phosphorylase is activated by? - Exact answer addition of a phosphate group from glucagon or epinephrine What happens when glycogenolysis is performed in the muscles? - Exact answer It converts glycogen to G1P Then to G6P Which will mostly be used for intracellular energy (ATP by Glycolysis)

What is the cori cycle? - Exact answer A process in the liver that regenerates glucose from lactate released by muscles And sends it back to the muscles to perform glycolysis and form more ATP The sources of glucose production by gluconeogenesis - Exact answer pyruvate lactate glycerol Amino acids What is fibre? Mention three points - Exact answer Fibre is the non digestible portions of plants Animal fibers include keratin and collagen Nowadays it is used for food additives usually What is the official definition of DIETARY fiber and what are the 10 types of fiber - Exact answer Consists of non digestible carbohydrates and also lignin that are intrinsic and in tact in plants cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, beta-glucans, lignin, pectin, gums, fructans, resistant starch, psyllium What is the definition of functional fiber - Exact answer All dietary fibers are functional fibers except for hemicellulose, fructans and lignin isolated and NON DIGESTIBLE carbohydrates that can have positive physiological effects for humans The plant cell wall = - Exact answer 95% dietary fibers there is a primary and a secondary wall made of cellulose and hemicellulose What is lignin? - Exact answer a complex organic polymer deposited in the cell walls of many plants, making them rigid and woody. These are specialized cells. PROVIDES STRUCTURAL SUPPORT

What is pectin? - Exact answer "glue" in middle lamella The intracellular glue in and around cells The composition of dietary fiber is influenced by three things - Exact answer Plant species Part of the plant (stem etc.) Plant's maturity We have the MOST fiber present in which part of the wheat?? - Exact answer the bran portion of the wheat Cereals and wheat bran are high in - Exact answer hemi-cellulose lignin cellulose Fruits and veg are high in - Exact answer cellulose and pectins What linkage links cellulose? - Exact answer Beta 1-4 linkage what are 5 characteristics of cellulose - Exact answer -Dietary and functional fiber! -Main component of plant cell walls -water insoluble -poorly fermented by gut bacteria

  • can be artificially added to foods as a thickener What are the bonds of hemicellulose? - Exact answer - B 1-4 -a 1-2 -a 1-3 What is the makeup of the backbone of hemicellulose? - Exact answer Hexoses and pentoses are the backbone and side chains What are 4 characteristics of hemicellulose? - Exact answer -dietary fiber, component of cell walls -sugars of side chains = determine characteristics

-water soluble or insoluble (depends on side chains) -ferment-ability then varies too What is the backbone of Pectins? - Exact answer alpha 1,4 galacturonic acid 4 characteristics of Pectins? - Exact answer -Dietary and functional fiber -part of plant cell walls -water soluble with ion binding potential (gel forming) -completely metabolized by bacteria -sometimes, as a fruit becomes riper, pectin is broken down What is the backbone component of lignin? - Exact answer phenol units What are 4 characteristics of lignin? - Exact answer - dietary and functional fiber -structural components of plants -insoluble in water, not well fermented -metabolized to enterolactone What are the bonds in GUMS? - Exact answer B 1-3 galactose and B 1-6 galactose What are 4 characteristics of gums? - Exact answer -Dietary and functional fiber -secreted at site of plant injury -water soluble and highly fermentable -used as a gel or thickening agent

  • especially guar gum which is used as a thickener commonly
  • some form viscous gels What is the backbone on beta glucans? - Exact answer B-D- glucopyranosyl (B 1-4 and 1-3 linkages) What are 5 characteristics of beta glucans? - Exact answer - dietary and functional fiber -water soluble -reduce serum cholesterol, postprandial blood glucose -highly fermentable -forms viscous gels

What is the simplest definition of resistant starch? - Exact answer starches which cannot be easily enzimatically digested and absorbed by humans Resistant starch 1 and 2 are - Exact answer dietary fibers Talk about RS1 - Exact answer RS1 is the most inaccessible to digestion of all the resisitant starches Talk about RS2 - Exact answer very prevalent is RAW or uncooked foods When starch 1 and 2 are cooked or chemically modified we will get - Exact answer RS3 and 4 RS1 is found in - Exact answer whole or partially milled seeds and grains RS2 is found in - Exact answer maize, green banana, potatoe, some legumes RS3 - Exact answer formed by cooking and then cooling a food causes growth of beneficial bacteria - it is a prebiotic improves GI response RS3 is found in - Exact answer rice, pasta, cooled cooked potatoe, high amylose corn RS4 - Exact answer chemically modified starch What is the structure of resistant dextrins? - Exact answer Always a glucose polymer Glucose polymers (α 1-4, α 1-6, α 1-3, α 1-2 bonds) How is resistant dextrin generated? - Exact answer Generated by treating cornstarch with heat, acids, or enzymes could be a functional fibre

Three "fructans" - Exact answer Three fructans are...

  1. inulin
  2. oligiofructose
  3. fructosoligiosaccaridases Fructose units promote - Exact answer the growth of bifidobacteria (prebiotic) considered dietary fibre Talk a bit more about fructans - Exact answer Fructans do not form viscous gels at all Fructooligiosaccaride is a functional fiber while the other two are dietary fibers Explain the structure of chiton or chitosan - Exact answer polymers of glucose B 1-4 linkages (SIMILAR to cellulose) What are some interesting characteristics of chitans - Exact answer -Bind dietary lipids in the stomach
  • Bind unesterified cholesterol and phospholipids promoting their excretion in the feces
  • Has been observed to reduce serum cholesterol and triglycerides
  • May have some immune enhancing functions, may reduce adverse side effects of cancer drug Polydextrose and Polyols are added to - Exact answer baking items as a sugar sub talk about 4 characteristics of polydextrose or polyols - Exact answer • No digestion or absorption
  • Some bacterial fermentation, fecal bulk -soluble and fermentable
  • Enhance growth of beneficial bacteria in the colon
  • They will raise blood glucose levels the same as any sugar
  • Polyols found in syrups and present naturally in some fruits (e.g., apples, watermelon, plums, peaches, pears)