Fundamentals of Cell Biology and Genetics, Exams of Biology

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BIOL 200 FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS & ANSWERS|| 2024 LATEST UPDATE negative feedback - ANSWER a form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product of a process of a process SLOWS the process positive feedback - ANSWER a form of regulation in which an end product of a process speeds up that process bacteria - ANSWER domain with prokaryotes archaea - ANSWER prokaryotes including extremum thermophiles eukarya - ANSWER the domain that includes all eukaryotic organisms (various groups of protists and the kingdoms Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia inductive reasoning - ANSWER use specific observations to make a general statement (hypothesis) (specific to general) deductive reasoning - ANSWER use general statements (hypothesis) to reach a specific conclusion data - ANSWER recorded observations theory - ANSWER an explanation that is broader in scope than a hypothesis, generates new hypotheses, and is supported by a large body of evidence. technology - ANSWER consists of any method or device that applies scientific knowledge or some specific purpose that affects society. hydrocarbon - ANSWER an organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen isomer - ANSWER compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and therefore different properties. structural isomer - ANSWER compounds with different covalent arrangements of atoms cis-trans isomer - ANSWER different arrangement of atoms around double bond geometric isomer cis- two x's on same side tran two x's on opposite sides enantomer - ANSWER isomers that are mirror images of each other functional group - ANSWER chemical groups that are directly involved in chemical reactions. has certain properties, such as shape and charge that causes it to participate in chemical reactions in a characteristic way ATP - ANSWER Adenosine Triphosphate-- an adenine containing nucleoside triphosphate that can react with H2O to make ADP and inorganic phosphate. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cell. element - ANSWER any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance by chemical reactions compound - ANSWER a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio atom - ANSWER the smallest unit of of an element atomic number - ANSWER the number of protons in the nucleus determines this number flagella - ANSWER a long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion. contains microtubules cell wall - ANSWER made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and proteins a protective layer external to the plasma membrane in the cells of plants, prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists. Polysaccharides such as cellulose and peptidoglycan are important structural components of cell walls extracelluar matrix - ANSWER the meshwork surroundings animal cells, consisting of glycoproteins, polysaccharides, and proteoglycans which functions in support, adhesion, movement, and regulation fermentation - ANSWER process that results in the partial degradation of glucose without the use of oxygen. oxidation - ANSWER the loss of electrons from one substance reduction - ANSWER the addition of electrons to the other electron transport chain - ANSWER a sequence of electron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons down a series of redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP glycolysis - ANSWER 1 glucose --> 2 pyruvates citric acid cycle - ANSWER pyruvates --> CO2 oxidative phosphorylation - ANSWER part of cellular respiration with most ATP synthesis Acetyl CoA - ANSWER Acetyl conenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration formed from a two-carbon fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme what is further oxidized in the citric acid cycle proton-motive force (H+ gradient) - ANSWER the potential energy stored in the fomr of a proton electron-chemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions (H+) across a biological membrane during chemiosmosis steroid - ANSWER a four fused rings with attached chemicals groups DNA - ANSWER a nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotides strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A C G T; capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's protein RNA - ANSWER makes proteins, expresses genes cohesion - ANSWER hydrogen bonding that keeps water molecules together. surface tension - ANSWER a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. Water has a high surface tension because of the hydrogen bonding of surface molecules hydrogen bonding is responsible for this specific heat - ANSWER the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g of a substance to change its temperature by 1 degree C solvent - ANSWER the dissolving agent of a solution. (water is most versatile) hydrophilic - ANSWER having an affinity for water hydrophobic - ANSWER having no affinity for water pH scale - ANSWER a measure of hydrogen ion concentration equal to -log(H+) and ranging in value from 0-14 acid - ANSWER a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution (donate H+ in aqueous solutions) chemiosmosis - ANSWER the use of energy in a H+ ion gradient to drive cellular wokr thlyakoids - ANSWER stacked sac in chloroplasts photosynthesis - ANSWER the conversion of light energy to chemical energy that is stored in sugars or other organic compounds; occurs in plants. algae, and certain prokaryotes. light reactions - ANSWER occurs in the thylakoid membrane. splits water releasing O2, producing ATP and forming NADPH NADPH - ANSWER acts as a reducing agent. (accepts electrons) and temporarily stores energized electrons produced during light reactions stroma - ANSWER the dense fluid within the cholorplasts surrounding the thylakoid membrane and containing ribosomes and DNA; involved in the synthesis of orgranic molecules from carbon dioxide and water visible light - ANSWER that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be detected as various colors by the human eye, ranging in wave length from about 380nm to 750nm wavelengths - ANSWER the distance between crests of waves, such as those of the electromagnetic spectrum chlorophyll a - ANSWER main photosynthetic pigment in plants catabolic - ANSWER breaking down large to small molecules, releasing energy cytokinesis - ANSWER the division of the cytoplasm cleavage - ANSWER the process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane OR the succession of rapid cell divisions without significant growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote cell plate - ANSWER a membrane-bounded, flattened sac located at the midline of a dividing plant cell, inside which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis binary fission - ANSWER in bacteria the chromosome replicates and the daughter chromosome actively move apart. metastasis - ANSWER exporting cancer cells to other sites, where they may form a secondary tumor locus - ANSWER a specific place along the length of a chromosome where a given gene is located karyotype - ANSWER a display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape diploid - ANSWER a cell containing two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent homologous - ANSWER a pair of chromosomes of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the father and the other from the mother. autosomes - ANSWER a chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex; not a sex chromosome sex chromosomes - ANSWER a chromosome responsible for determining the sex of an individual gametes - ANSWER a haploid reproductive cell, such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote. haploids - ANSWER a cell containing only one set of chromosomes amphipathic - ANSWER having both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region proteins embedded in the phospholipid bilayer selective permeability - ANSWER a property of biological membranes that allows them to regulate the passage of substances across them concentration gradient - ANSWER a region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases hypertonic - ANSWER high solute concentration isotonic - ANSWER same solute concentration hypotonic - ANSWER low solute concentration facilitated diffusion - ANSWER a transport protein speeds the movement of water or a solute across a membrane down its concentration gradient. sodium-potassium pump - ANSWER a transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell exocytosis - ANSWER leaving cells in vesicles endocytosis - ANSWER entering cell in vesicles autotrpohic - ANSWER Autotrophs use energy from the sun and carry out photosynthesis organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms. chloroplasts - ANSWER an organelle found in plants and photsynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water. meiosis - ANSWER a modified type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms consisting of two round of cell division but only one round of DNA replication. It results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets as the original cell. crossing over - ANSWER the reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during prophase I of meiosis transcription - ANSWER the synthesis of RNA using a DNA template translation - ANSWER the synthesis of a polypeptide using the genetic information encoded in an mRNA molecule. There is a change of "language" from nucleotides to amino acids. mRNA - ANSWER a type of RNA, synthesized using a DNA template that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein. codons - ANSWER a three nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code RNA polymerase - ANSWER an enzyme that links RNA nucleotides complementary on a DNA template strand RNA processing - ANSWER modification of RNA primary transcripts, including splicing out of introns, joining together of exons, and alterations of the 5'--3' ends. exon - ANSWER a sequence within the primary transcript that remains in the RNA after RNA processing; also refers to the regions included in the mRNA spliceosomes - ANSWER a large complex made up of proteins and RNA molecules that splices RNA by interacting with the ends of an RNA intro, releasing the intron and joining the two adjacent exons linkage map - ANSWER a genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing voer of homologous chromosomes aneuploidy - ANSWER abnormal chromosome number; can result in nondisjunction nondisjunction - ANSWER an error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other polyploidy - ANSWER organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets. deletion - ANSWER segment is lost duplication - ANSWER repetition of segment inversion - ANSWER in a reverse orientation to the chromosome from which it originatd translocation - ANSWER chromosomes move to another non homologous chromosome double helix - ANSWER the form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into spiral shape antiparallel - ANSWER referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix semiconservative - ANSWER the parental molecule unwinds, and each strand then serves as a template for the synthesis of a new strand according to base-pairs replication fork - ANSWER a y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where the parental strands are being unwound and new strands are being synthesized leading strand - ANSWER the new complementary DNA strand synthesized continuously along the template strand toward replication fork in the mandatory 5'---> 3' direction operon - ANSWER a unit of genetic function found in bacteria and phages, consisting of a promoter, an operator, and a coordinately regulated cluster of genes whose products function in a common pathway repressor - ANSWER a protein that that inhibits gene transcription. in prokaryotes, repressor binds to the DNA inin or near the promoter. In eukaryotes, repressors may bind to control elements within enhancers, to activators, or to other proteins in a way that blocks activators from binding to DNA inducer - ANSWER a specific small molecule that binds to a bacterial repressor protein and changes the repressor's shape so that it cannot bind to an oerator, thus switching an operon on activator - ANSWER a protein that binds to DNA and stimulates gene transcription. In prokaryotes, activators bind in or near the promoter; in eukaryotes, activators generally bind to control elements in enhancers. what is needed to activate positive gene regulation enhancer - ANSWER a segment of eukaryotic DNA containing multiple control elements, usually located far from the gene whose transcription it regulates. alternative RNA splicing - ANSWER a type of eukaryotic gene regulation at the RNA-processing level in which different mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns differentiation - ANSWER the process by which a cell or group of cells become specialized in structure and function morphogenesis - ANSWER the development of the form of an organism and its structure pattern formation - ANSWER the development of a multicellular organism's spatial organization, the arrangements of organs and tissues in their characterisitics place in 3 dimensional space oncogene - ANSWER cancer causing genes lagging strand - ANSWER a discontinously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazi fragments, each synthesized in a 5'--->2' direction away from the fork telomeres - ANSWER repetitive sequences at the end of linear DNA molecules, postpones erosion of genes histones - ANSWER bind proteins + DNA nucleosomes - ANSWER the basic, bead-like unit of DNA packing in eukaryotes, euchromatin - ANSWER the less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription restriction enzymes - ANSWER recognizes and cuts DNA molecules plasmids - ANSWER small, circular, double stranded DNA molecule that carries accesory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; in DNA cloning, plasmids are used as vectors carrying to about 10,000 base pairs of DNA. plasmids also found in some eukaryotes nucleic acid hybridization - ANSWER the base pairing of one strand of nucleic aid to the complementary sequence on a strand from another nuclei acid molecule polymerase chain reaction - ANSWER can produce many copies of a specific target segment of DNA gel electrophoresis - ANSWER technique for separating nucleic acids or proteins on the basis of their size and electrical charge, both of which affect their rate of movement through an electric field in a gel made of agarose or another poylmer. single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) - ANSWER genetic markers for alleles that are associated with particular conditions