Fundamentals of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Exams of Medicine

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Microbe that cause influenza were killed and used to develop a new vaccine. The Killed cells contain recognizable antigens on their surface that can generate an immune response. However, they cannot cause disease. To which class of vaccines does the new vaccine belong? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Inactivated whole agent Why must DNA be heated to 94 degrees C during the first step in the polymerase chain reaction cycle? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ to break hydrogen bonds between DNA strands Beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin, inhibit bacterial enzymes involved in.. - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ breaking down the peptidoglycan cell wall You are in charge of quality control at a biomanufactoring company and need to hire a person to verify the purity of a manufactured protein. Which is the most important skill that a person you would hire would possess? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Experience running and analyzing results of protein ekectrophoresis Sensorineural hearing loss is caused by.... - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ damage to the auditory nerve hydrophobic interactive chromatography is a method used to purify a protein based on.. - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ it's hydrophobic properties Cochlear implants could possibly help a person who has a problem with their... - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ inner ear the parts of the ear that converts stimulus from the outside environment into the nerve impulses for transmission to the brain is the... - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ cochlea

DNA ligase is - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ A linking enzyme that links pieces of DNA together Recombinant DNA can be inserted into a bacteria using a bacteriophage through the process of... - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ transduction Epidemiology is the ... - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ study of bacterial infections and how they are transferred in a population A bacterial culture is several days old. Many of the bacterial cells have ruptured and released DNA into the nutrient agar. A few living bacteria cells in the culture have become genetically enhanced by taking the DNA into the cytoplasm and are now resistant to amplicillin. The above explains which of the following processes? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Transformation During the ELISA test the secondary antibody was conjugated with an enzyme. What happens when that enzyme was attached with a substrate? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ the substrate causes the enzyme to oxidize resulting in color change A tumor suppressor gene is a gene that.. - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ produces proteins that inhibit cell division DNA micro-arrays measure - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ the amount of cDNA for every gene that is expressed Which of the following antibiotics blocks the attachment of tRNA to the ribosome preventing protein synthesis - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ tetracylines What bio-medical professionals are involved in the stages of producing and manufacturing a protein product - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ genetic engineers isolate and insert gene microbiologists culture bacteria lab techs generate/purify protein pharmacologists design/test medications

What role does insulin play in diabetes? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ INSULIN allows cells to take up sugar, getting sugar out of the blood Type 1 diabetics need insulin injections to survive—otherwise their cells will die (need glucose to make energy How has the diagnosis and treatment for diabetes changed in the last 200 years? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Long ago—diagnosed by tasting pee for sweetness 1700's-1800's—treated with dietary restrictions & deadly chemicals 1920s on—insulin used to treat patients How can bacterial plasmids be used to produce proteins such as insulin? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ This is done through genetic engineering Plasmids are isolated from bacteria Plasmid is cut with restriction enzyme The gene for insulin (or other protein) is inserted into the plasmid Plasmid is closed (it now contains recombinant DNA—DNA from multiple sources) Bacteria are made to take up plasmid and pump out protein What is bacterial transformation? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Transformation is the process by which cells are made to take up a genetically engineered plasmid after that they'll make the protein that the inserted gene(s) code for Transformed bacteria are grown on antibiotic like ampicillin to ensure purity of culture How can you gauge the success of a transformation experiment? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊 ✔✔You have to calculate the transformation efficiency, which how many transformants there were per microgram of DNA added How does amino acid structure relate to the overall shape of a protein? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊 ✔✔ Proteins are made of amino acids, some of which are hydrophilic (water-loving) and some of which are hydrophobic (water-fearing) In an aqueous environment (bottom right), proteins fold so that the hydrophobic amino acids "hide" on the inside

In a hydrophobic environment, proteins fold so that the hydrophobic amino acids coat the outside What is chromatography? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Chromatography is a way of separating the parts of a mixture, based on their different properties How can chromatography be used to separate proteins? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Proteins can be passed through column chromatography, with some columns grabbing more hydrophilic proteins and others grabbing more hydrophobic proteins How can electrophoresis be used to check the purity of a protein sample? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ The protein is loaded into a well and standards are in another well The protein travels and so do the standards The protein can be compared to the standards and its length determined Protein length is compared to known length of target protein (i.e. insulin) What is SDS-PAGE? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ SDS stands for sodium dodecyl sulfate & is a soap that dissolves hydrophobic molecules (like GFP) PAGE stands for polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is the method used to check for protein purity Treatment for ESRD - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Hemodialysis Peritoneal dialysis Kidney transplant what Is xenotransplantation - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Xeno= foreign, so xenotransplantation is transplantation of foreign (non-human) organs into humans What are the ethical considerations for xenotransplantation and tissue engineering? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Risk of new infectious diseases Welfare of animals involved

What about tissue engineering? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Tissue engineering is the growing of tissues in a lab, usually from a person's OWN stem cells How can the human body be remodeled or enhanced to create a "super" human? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Bionic parts can improve function by working with our existing parts to enhance the body What are the main categories of interventions that function to maintain human health? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Diagnostic Tools - X-ray, EKG, Stethoscope, ect. Rehabilitation - crutches, casts, exercise Surgery Pharmaceuticals Genetics - Gene therapy, counseling Engineering - bionics, biometrics, nanotech How do scientists gather evidence during the potential outbreak of an infectious disease? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Interview/Survey - people who are sick to look for connections Symptoms - Identify symptoms and compare between patients Diagnostics - Use a variety of tools to identify the cause of the disease (including ELISA and Bioinformatics) Look at concentrations and connections to determine starting point and then identify source of disease. What is an antibody? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Protein produced by B-cells. Each antibody will only bind to one specific antigen Once bound to antigens (proteins on a pathogen) antibodies will inactivate the pathogen and recruit lymphocytes to kill the pathogen

How can the ELISA assay be used to detect disease? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Add Antigen (Sample) Add Primary Antibody Add Secondary Antibody w/ Enzyme Add Substrate Look for color change and amount of color change Why is it important for doctors to know the concentration of disease antigen present in a patient's system? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ The Concentration tells us who started the infection and where the possible source of the pathogen is located. What steps do scientists take to diagnose, treat, and prevent future spread of a disease outbreak? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Diagnosis Symptoms Interviews Bioinformatics ELISA Various other diagnostic tests Treatment Antibiotics Antivirals Prevention Vaccinations Quarantines Inform public Capsule - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ The outer layer that allows bacteria to stick to things and gives them extra protection

Cell Wall - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Support and protection Gram + Purple one large peptidoglycan layer Gram - Pink two layers (one peptidoglycan and one lipopolysaccharide) Endotoxins - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Found in gram - bacteria cell walls that kill surrounding pathogens Cell membrane - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Controls what comes into and out of the cell Nucleoid - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Bacterial Chromosomal DNA Ribosome - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Protein Production Plasmid - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Small sections of DNA that often have antibiotic resistant genes Flagella - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Movement of the bacteria Pili - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Used for attachment and the transfer of DNA B-Lactam/Penicillin - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Inhibit the enzyme that used to make the cell wall so the cell wall becomes weakend Tetracyclines- - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Bind to Ribosomes and inhibit tRNA from bringing amino acids, thus stopping protein production Fluoroquinolones - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Prevent the reproduction of DNA and therefore bacterial reproduction Sulfa - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Inhibit folic Acid production

Conjugation - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Bacterium use their pilus (sex pistols) to transfer plasmid DNA to another bacterium Transformation - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Bacteria pick up the DNA floating in the outside environment. Transduction - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ A virus injects the DNA into host cell. Virus uses the bacterial DNA to reproduce and incorporates the bacterial DNA into their DNA. They can then input the bacterium's genes into a new cell. How do scientists gather evidence during the potential outbreak of an infectious disease? (tests used) - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Bioinformatics - Take blood samples and compare the DNA found to DNA in a database ELISA - Test for antigens and antibodies in CSF Interviews - Look for connections between patients Diagnostics - Use a variety of other diagnostic tools to identify the disease Amplitude - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Measure of the height of the sound wave (energy) in decibels Indicates how loud the sound will be Frequency - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Measures the speed of the sound wave in hertz Indicates the pitch of the sound Outer Ear - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Pinna - Collects sound waves Ear Canal Ear Drum (Tympanic Membrane) Transfers sound waves to vibrations in the middle ear Middle Ear - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Ossicles - Bones vibrate and send pressure waves through the cochlea Malleus, Incus, Stapes (MIS)

Inner Ear - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Cochlea - Contains sensory hairs that pick up on vibrations and send signals up the auditory nerve to the brain Vestibule - Maintains balance Eustachian Tube - Maintains pressure in the ear Conductive Hearing loss - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Caused by a blockage or problem with one of the above structures. Can often be reversed with surgery or treated by antibiotics if due to infections. Sensorineural Hearing loss - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Caused by genetic or environmental damage to the inner ear. Often irreversible and need hearing aids, sign language, or cochlear implants to communicate Rinne Test - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Uses a tuning fork to compare sound through vibrations to sound waves going through the outer ear. If the sound through vibrations is longer that means there maybe conductive hearing loss. Audiogram - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Uses different frequencies to test the decibels patients can hear them in a sound proof room What is vaccination? How does a vaccine activate the body's immune system? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ The body is presented a dead or weakened form of the pathogen to expose the immune system to the antigen. This allows the B-cell to produce antibodies and memory cells. Therefore, when the body is exposed to the antigen again the immune system will be able to fight off the infection. Similar Pathogen Vaccine - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Insert a similar pathogen to what you want to vaccinate against. This pathogen is not as harmful to humans as the pathogen you are vaccinating against. It contains a similar enough antigen that we can develop antibodies to kill the pathogen Attenuated Vaccine - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Pathogen is grown under non ideal conditions for several generations, causing the pathogen to evolve. Due to natural selection the

pathogen is now adapted to the new environment. When placed in humans they still have the antigens, but will be weak in the body's environment so they will not harm. Killed Vaccine - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Pathogen is killed due to heat or radiation and inserted into the body. The dead pathogen still contains antigens, but will not be able to reproduce and cause harm. Toxoid Vaccine - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Grow pathogen and collect the toxins. Inject toxins into the person with another vaccine and the body will build up an immunity. Subunit Vaccine - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Gene for antigen from pathogen is put onto a plasmid and inserted into another organism. This organism can produce the antigen, which is used to produce the vaccine. Naked DNA Vaccine - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Gene for antigen from pathogen is put onto a plasmid and inserted into a bacteria to replicate the plasmid. The plasmid is purified and placed into the body. The body cells can uptake the DNA and begin making the antigen. How can engineered plasmids be inserted into bacterial cells? How can recombinant DNA and bacterial cells be used to produce vaccines? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ The recombinant plasmid is made and inserted into the bacteria via transformation. The bacteria can express the gene that was placed into the plasmid to produce the necessary antigen for the vaccine. Single Gene Mutation - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Autosomal Dominant - A dominant gene on one of the 44 non-sex chromosomes (Huntingdon's) Autosomal Recessive - A recessive gene on one of the 44 non-sex chromosomes (Tay- sac's) Sex-linked - Gene usually carried on the X chromosome (colorblindness) Multifactorial mutation - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ A combination of many genes and environmental factors (Cancer)

Chromosomal mutation - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ A missing or damaged chromosome (Down's syndrome Mitochondrial mutation - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Mutation found in the mitochondrial DNA. Only passed on from mother Carrier Screening - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Using pedigrees and genetic testing to determine if parents and family members are carrier of a genetic disease Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Test the embryo after in vitro fertilization for any mutations Fetal Screening - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ The use of amniocentesis, chronic villi sampling and ultrasounds to diagnosis abnormalities in the fetus Newborn screening - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Screen newborns for the most common abnormalities Denaturation - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ temperature is increased to separate DNA strands Annealing - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ temperature is decreased to allow primers to base pair to complementary DNA template Extension - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ polymerase extends primer to form nascent DNA strand How can genetic diseases be cured if scientists could replace faulty genes? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Scientists can place a gene for the correct protein into human cells, or even better the chromosome, so the DNA can be transcribed into the correct protein. The correct protein will be able to perform the desired function and cure the disease. How might gene therapy open the door to genetic enhancement? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊 ✔✔This could bring about genetic enhancement if this would increase a protein, like hemoglobin, so athletes would have more oxygen in their blood

What vectors can be used to transfer DNA to human cells? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Things to consider when picking a vector What tissue to you need to target? Do the cells need to be dividing? What size DNA will the vector accept? Insert gene into genome Avoid side effects/immune response Retrovirus - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Uses RNA for the gene Targets specific cells, but gene will be inserted randomly, possibly causing side effects May produce immune response Adenovirus - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Uses DNA for the gene Targets specific cells May produce immune response Gene is not inserted into the genome and gene will be discarded Adeno-associated virus - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Uses DNA for the gene No immune response Will insert into a chromosome without disrupting the genome Herpes Simplex virus - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Holds large DNA Gene is not put into genome Only infects Nervous system May cause an immune response Naked DNA - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ No immune response Not specific to any cell type

Preimplantation genetic testing - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ test the embryo for sex and implant the specific gender you want Microsort - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ X chromosome absorbs more dye and those cells are given a positive charge to separate them from the cells with a Y Ericsson Method - - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ - Sperm swim down and we assume sperm with smaller Y go faster so they are collected for boys Reproductive cloning - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Creating a new baby that is a clone of another organism Spin Method - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Spin the sperm and heavier X chromosome spin go to the outside and lighter sperm collect in the middle Therapeutic cloning- - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Use DNA to create stem cells that can be used to create new organs, tissues, or neurons specific to that person What are some of the ethical dilemmas surrounding current and future reproductive technology? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ The creation and destruction of human embryos Playing God? Families that have kids without any genetic relationship with parents X-Ray - - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ uses radiation to view broken bones bones, lung diseases, and digestive system CT scan - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ uses multiple X-rays in a tube to produce cross-sectional views of bone and soft tissue, like organs. MRI - - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ uses magnets to produce detailed cross-sectional views of soft body tissue to identify diseases.

Bone Scan - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Add radioactive tracers that are soaked up by the bone to produce full skeletal view to identify abnormal bone growth What do DNA microarrays measure? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ DNA microarrays measure the number and amount of genes turned on and off in cancer cells vs. normal cells We can do this by collecting mRNA from the cells, which will only be made if the genes are turned on We can also determine if there is a correlation between genes interacting with each other How is DNA microarray technology used to determine the differences in gene expression between different tissue samples? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Red - The genes are only on in cancer cells Yellow - The genes are on in cancer and normal cells Black - The genes are not on in either cells Green - The genes are only on in normal cells Microarrays can also tell us the relative intensity of the gene expression because there will be varying shades of the colors. The bright red would be a high expression of the gene in cancer cells, where as the dark red would be a low expression. The same would be true for the yellow and the green How are the similarities of gene expression patterns between different individuals calculated? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Using statistical analyses we look at gene expression of several genes in several patients that have the same disease. We use correlation coefficients to determine if there is a pattern between what genes are turned on and what genes are turned off If there is a positive correlation then both of the genes are behaving in the same way If there is a negative correlation then the genes are behaving in opposite ways (one is on and the other is off) Correlation of 1 means that gene expression is identical Correlation of 0 means there is no correlation

A number further from 0 and closer to 1 means that there is a stronger correlation In what ways do different risk factors increase the chance that a person will develop cancer? How can lifestyle changes reduce the risk for developing cancer? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊 ✔✔ Biological Age - the risk for all cancers increase Infections - Some viral and bacterial infections can cause an increase risk of cancer Reduce these risks by being screened often and getting vaccinations Genetic Sometimes a gene can be inherited from parents that increases the risk of cancer, because you already one step (mutation) towards cancer. Hereditary cancer and familial cancer would be genetic. Sporadic cancer (most cancers) are not genetic. Environmental Pollution - Smoke and chemicals, like asbestos, can damage DNA UV Radiation - More on this later Radiation - Excessive radiation from sources, like Xrays Behavioral Red meat and other foods have been shown to increase risks of cancer (other foods, like antioxidants have been shown to lower cancer) Smoking increases risk of lung cancer (same with smokeless tobacco and mouth cancer) Not taking preventative measures, like staying out of the sun Basal/Squamous - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ - most common and least dangerous form that can be found anywhere on the body Melonoma - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ most common on face, chest, and legs, and are more likely to metastize ABCDE - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Asymmetry Border irregularity

Color changes Diameter greater than 1/4 inch (about 6 mm) Evolving pyrimidine antagonists - treatment for skin cancer - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ inhibit the enzyme that makes pyrimidines (thymine, uracil, cytosine), which stops the production of DNA and RNA. While this works in some patients it has a variety of side effects including burning and sun sensitivity when using it on skin How can molecular tests be used to detect inherited genetic mutations associated with certain cancers? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Genetic Marker Analysis - Easier and cheaper genetic analysis that DNA Sequencing. These are located directly in front of the gene in question (therefore, often passed on with the gene) Markers are Short Tandem Repeats (non-coding DNA that are repetitive sequences of DNA) STRs are highly variable by length (sequence can repeat any number of times making them different lengths) Easy to identify STRs using gel electrophoresis because they are simply different lengths Use of genetic markers - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Use them in conjunction with pedigrees Identify people with gene for cancer Conduct a marker analysis on family members and unknown family member using gel electrophoresis Identify STR sizes using standard curve Compare STRs and identify alleles possessed by each family member Analyze allele to see if there is a correlation between alleles and family members with cancer Breast Cancer - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Genetic Component

BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 are tumor suppressor genes Mutations in these may lead to tumors 5-10% of breast cancers are related to these genes BRCA 2 genes are linked to male breast cancer Preventative measures Prophylactic mastectomy - reduces risk of breast cancer by 90% Get it test positive for BRCA 1 or 2 genes, calcium deposits, radiation therapy, or previous breast cancer Hormonal therapy - medicines or removal of the ovaries in order to reduce estrogen Nutrition Physical Activity How can viruses lead to cancer - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Viruses can cause cancer by injecting DNA into cells and thereby causing a mutation HPV - linked strongly to cervical cancer, vaccines may help, but will not guard against every strain EBV - may lead to lymphomas Hepatitis B - Vaccine Hepatitis C - No vaccine both may lead to liver cancer What is the importance of routine cancer screenings? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ You should get routine screenings for: Prostate Colon Cervical Breast Skin, Testicular, and lung Early detection of cancers is crucial to stop the metastases process before the cancer spreads and cause problems elsewhere. It is also easier to treat and cure cancer when caught early

What can a cancer patient receiving chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy expect during treatment? CHEMO - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to kill, prevent the spreading, slow growth, and treat symptoms of cancer. The side effects are different everyone, but typical side effects are hair loss, anemia and symptoms that occur with anemia, increased infections, bleeding, and bruising, and nausea Most of these symptoms are due to the fact that chemo affects fast growing cells, like blood forming cells in the bone marrow. Therefore, not as much blood is being formed. What can a cancer patient receiving chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy expect during treatment? RADIATION - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Radiation is more of local treatment that focuses radiation onto cancer cells to destroy DNA, causing cells to stop dividing. Radiation can be given externally or internally through an implant Most side effects are localized skin and hair changes along with fatigue This may often to lead to anger, depression, and helplessness How is biofeedback therapy used to help patients improve their health or manage pain? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Biofeedback changes the mental state of the patient, which allows them to calm down. The patient learns to use their mind to control involuntary actions of the body, like heart rate, muscle tension, and respiration rate. They can overcome pain by relaxing specific muscle groups to relieve certain chronic pain and migraines This can also help lower blood pressure, anxiety attacks, asthma attacks, or urination problems In what ways do artificial limbs allow patients who have suffered from the loss of a limb regain lost function? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Other limbs can offer simple movements, like hooks or pinchers to allow the person to pick objects up Prosthetics can be hooked to other functional parts of the body that are used to move the prosthetic. A patient can use switches and toggles to control the prosthetic Myoelectrics can you muscle impulses to control the movement of the prosthetic. Special dyes can be used to make the prosthetic the same color, with freckles, fingerprints and a life like appearance

Myoelectrics can use muscle contractions and EMG signals to control the prosthetic Current research is ongoing into the use of brain signals connected to the motor cortex to move robotic arms, which could be the new wave of prosthetics. How do physical and occupational therapists help patients with disabilities or patients recovering from surgery or injury? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Physical Therapists focus on range of motion, movement, and ability to regain proper movement. Occupational therapists work with patients to practice normal, routine practices that they have to do everyday, like driving, cooking, and using the restroom. They design appropriate exercises for the patients to practice the intended movement They also use electric shock, stretching, and massage therapy to relax and test muscles Finally they assign appropriate tools and rehabilitation equipment for the patients to use and guide the patient in the use of them. Why do some drugs affect individuals in different ways? How can information in our genes affect how our bodies interact with certain medications? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊 ✔✔Within the population there are many SNP (single nucleotide polymorphs - one nucleotide base change) that occur within our genes. Many SNPs can occur in one region, which is called a haplotype. This is what scientists look at to develop personalized medicine. If the SNP's occur in the genes that code for a protein it can affect the way the drug works or is metabolized. If the the drug works by binding to a protein it may work very well for some people of one haplotype. However, a people with a different haplotype may have a slightly altered protein that does not allow the drug to bind to, which means the drug is ineffective How are clinical trials set up to ensure all data collected is valid and that all human subjects are treated ethically? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊✔✔ Best setup is a double blind study - This where neither the patient nor the doctor knows what patient is receiving the placebo or the actual treatment. This also should be done randomly to eliminate possible further bias of a group of similar people being tested the same. The FDA oversees to see that subjects are aware of the costs and benefits of the drug. They should also know the exactly what the risks are with the treatment

How might Nanomedicine change the future of medicine? - 🔷ANSWERS 🖊 ✔✔Nanotechnology can help us manipulate DNA to actually edit and repair DNA in- situ (inside the body) Can carry specific drugs to cancer cells that can trigger apoptosis Can also make cancer drugs in-situ right next to the targeted cells so the drugs are not broken down