Fundamentals of Psychology and Neuroscience, Exams of Nursing

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In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus and the subsequent unconditioned response to it are used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus, which causes a conditioned response. The best-known example is Pavlov's experiment on dogs. Pavlov's unconditioned stimulus was meat and the dogs' unconditioned, or instinctual, response to it was to salivate. Pavlov then introduced a neutral stimulus, which initially caused no response from the dogs. However, when he began ringing the bell before feeding meat to the dogs, the dogs began to associate the ringing of the bell with receiving meat. Eventually, the ringing of the bell alone actually made the dogs salivate. The neutral stimulus (the ringing of the bell), through association with the unconditioned stimulus (the meat), had become a conditioned stimulus that caused a conditioned response (salivating). . Of these methods, variable-ratio schedul - correct answer ✔✔Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning uses reinforcement to encourage a behavior and punishment to discourage it. An additional distinction is made between positive and negative reinforcements and punishments. "Positive" means adding a stimulus, and "negative" means removing one. Thus, positive reinforcement is adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior, while positive punishment is adding an unpleasant stimulus to discourage a behavior. Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior, while negative punishment is removing a pleasant stimulus to discourage a behavior. ]Classical and operant conditioning are two common frameworks used to describe learning. - correct answer ✔✔They are both forms of associative learning, which takes place when associations are made between stimuli or events that occur together. The infinite number of scenarios in which these concepts can be applied makes it imperative to understand the underlying principles. The autonomic nervous system controls physiological responses, which precede emotional response under the James-Lange theory. - correct answer ✔✔The somatic nervous system The somatic nervous system involves conscious control of muscles. The physiological responses involved in the James-Lange theory are unconscious, like an increase in heart rate. enteric nervous system - correct answer ✔✔The nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract. It controls secretion and motility within teh Gi tract, and is linked to the central nervous system.

central nervous system - correct answer ✔✔consists of the brain and spinal cord The autonomic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system, which describes the nervous system throughout the body and is distinguished from the central nervous system, which corresponds to the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is also divided into the visceral nervous system, which modulates the digestive system, and the somatic nervous system, which connects to skeletal muscle to allow for voluntary movement. - correct answer ✔✔. The peripheral nervous system is also divided into the visceral nervous system, which modulates the digestive system, and the somatic nervous system, which connects to skeletal muscle to allow for voluntary movement.= The PNS consists of what? - correct answer ✔✔visceral nervous system-digestive system somatic nervous system- which connects 2 skeletal muscle for voluntary movement autonomic nervous system=sympathetic and parasympathetic Cognitive dissonance refers to the discomfort that occurs when one holds contradictory beliefs, or when one performs actions that are at odds with one's beliefs. Again, this is not applicable here. - correct answer ✔✔or when one performs actions that are at odds with one's beliefs. The subjects who were uninformed about the potential effects of the adrenaline injection incorrectly thought that they were emotionally responding to the arousing situation. - correct answer ✔✔This perfectly constitutes misattribution of arousal, as the subjects attributed their arousal to the wrong cause. A. Self-monitoring Self-monitoring is a long-term strategy that usually involves self-reflection and taking regular notes on your behavior, thoughts, and attitudes over time. B. Dissonance induction Cognitive dissonance can be induced when a person is forced to recognize the inconsistency between his or her beliefs and behaviors. This was a part of the program.

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory accounts for acquired s - correct answer ✔✔There are two main types of sensory memory: iconic memory, responsible for visual information and lasting only a few tenths of a second, and echoic memory, responsible for auditory information and lasting 3 to 4 seconds. Hippocampus encodes - correct answer ✔✔explicit memories The cerebellum plays a primary role in encoding - correct answer ✔✔implicit memories. Defense mechanisms include a wide range of psychological dynamics through which an individual deals with undesired thoughts or feelings (conceptualized as conflict between the superego and id in Freudian psychology). Repression is the process the ego uses to push undesired or unacceptable thoughts and urges down into the unconscious. The conscious, deliberate form of this is known as suppression or denial, and is typically used to willfully forget an emotionally painful experience or event. Regression is the unconscious process of reverting back to behaviors that are less sophisticated and often associated with children (sucking one's thumb, wetting the bed). Reaction formation is the process of repressing a feeling by outwardly expressing the exact opposite of it. For example, if you really hate a person, you would pretend to really like them. Rationalization is the process of justifying one's behaviors, which - correct answer ✔✔Regression is the unconscious process of reverting back to behaviors that are less sophisticated and often associated with children (sucking one's thumb, wetting the bed). Projection=your thoughts or feelings of someone onto them - correct answer ✔✔thinking your roommate does not like you because you do not like them Displacement is the process of redirecting violent, sexual, or otherwise unseemly impulses from being directed at one person or thing to another. - correct answer ✔✔For example, if a teacher having trouble with a problem student begins to feel aggressive urges towards the student, the teacher might displace those aggressive feelings towards their spouse when arriving at home.

regression toward the mean - correct answer ✔✔the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average. Kohlberg's stages of moral development - correct answer ✔✔preconventional, conventional, postconventional preconventional - correct answer ✔✔The first level of moral thinking is that generally found at the elementary school level. In the first stage of this level, people behave according to socially acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority figure (e.g., parent or teacher). This obedience is compelled by the threat or application of punishment. The second stage of this level is characterized by a view that right behavior means acting in one's own best interests. conventional morality - correct answer ✔✔second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior The second level of moral thinking is that generally found in society, hence the name "conventional." The first stage of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude which seeks to do what will gain the approval of others. The second stage is one oriented to abiding by the law and responding to the obligations of duty. postconventional - correct answer ✔✔The third level of moral thinking is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the majority of adults. Its first stage (stage 5) is an understanding of social mutuality and a genuine interest in the welfare of others. The last stage (stage 6) is based on respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience. While Kohlberg always believed in the existence of Stage 6 and had some nominees for it, he could never get enough subjects to define it, much less observe their longitudinal movement to it. anomie - correct answer ✔✔a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises when we can no longer reasonably expect life to be predictable; too little social regulation; normlessness Anomie - correct answer ✔✔lack of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group Anomie - correct answer ✔✔B.

designated as "prisoners," and over time, the guards began to exhibit progressively more abusive and problematic behavior. Milgram's electric shock experiment also relates to authority. This experiment indicated that participants were willing to administer painful stimuli to others if instructed to do so by an authority figure. In reality, the "others" in the study were actors who were simply pretending to be shocked. Abraham Maslow famously developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a schematic of human needs in order from the most basic (food, water, etc.) to the most high-level (self-actualization). Hans Eysenck studied personality with a strong focus on the biological perspective, which considers personality differences to be the result of biological factors. Carl Rogers - correct answer ✔✔1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person real and ideal self In this framework, the point of psychotherapy is to help the client sort through issues and make positive decisions regarding them, rather than make a diagnosis or provide a concrete solution for the underlying problem. limbic system components - correct answer ✔✔septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus Show Explanation C. Hypothalamus While there is no universal agreement on the total list of structures that comprise the limbic system, the main brain regions that are recognized to constitute the core limbic system are the amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, septal area, and hypothalamus.

Have to review content Cerebellum - correct answer ✔✔A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills. cerebral cortex - correct answer ✔✔The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. The frontal lobe - correct answer ✔✔is involved in reward behavior, inhibition, planning, motivation, and attention, but it is not part of the limbic system. The basal ganglia are located just under the cortex and connect to both the brainstem and the cortical lobes. - correct answer ✔✔. The basal ganglia are involved in several functions, including voluntary movement, habitual behaviors, learning, and emotion. The cerebral cortices overlay the rest of the brain's structures and are responsible for many of the higher functions seen in humans. - correct answer ✔✔The cortices can be divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The frontal lobe is associated with making judgments and regulating behavior as a part of executive functioning. The occipital lobe is most closely related to visual processing, as data from the optic nerves are sent directly there. The parietal lobe is associated with integrating various sensory input, and both the parietal and temporal lobes are important for language. Broca's area - correct answer ✔✔Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. Wernicke's area - correct answer ✔✔controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe forebrain include the amygdala, which processes memory, emotions, and decision-making; the hippocampus, which consolidates short-term memory into long-term memory;

Of the four Cluster B personality disorders, the only condition that is characterized by a fixation on intentional malevolence or sadism is antisocial personality disorder. Patients across multiple Cluster B conditions may lack empathy or disregard rules, but antisocial PD is unique in that its patients may exhibit deliberate sadism. - correct answer ✔✔the only condition that is characterized by a fixation on intentional malevolence or sadism is antisocial personality disorder. Patients across multiple Cluster B conditions may lack empathy or disregard rules, but antisocial PD is unique in that its patients may exhibit deliberate sadism. antisocial personality disorder - correct answer ✔✔A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist. SADISM INTENTIONAL MALEVELOENCE In sociology, prescriptive refers to what an individual believes should occur, - correct answer ✔✔occur, while descriptive refers to what one perceives as actually occurring. Inductive reasoning extrapolates from individual observations to general principles, - correct answer ✔✔while deductive reasoning is the opposite. Neither of these phenomena is occurring in the situations described by the question stem. Social stratification is the ranking of individuals or groups into a hierarchy that differentiates them as relatively superior or relatively inferior. Social stratification is most commonly understood through the separation of people and/or groups by three social identifiers. Social class implies having or not having access to capital, social or otherwise. Examples include the degree of privilege, power, rights over others, authority, or self-determination the individual has.

Racial and ethnic stratification refers to inequalities between fixed groups, such as the shared genetic ancestry and physical traits of race, or the shared cultural, behavioral, or religious characteristics of ethnicity. Gender is the patterning of difference and domination through distinctions between women and men. Gender roles are social constructions: they contain self-perceptions, psychological traits, and roles assigned to each sex. - correct answer ✔✔Socially recognized traits are used as the basis for determining patterns of social hierarchy. These may be purely social (e.g. educational level) or rooted in biology (e.g. race, gender), but social recognition is always what lays the groundwork for stratification. Institutionalized stratification can then lead to inequality as a result of institutional discrimination (i.e. when the prevailing attitudes, behaviors, and accepted structural arrangements work to the disadvantage of specific groups). Transference is the inappropriate transferring of feelings about one relationship to another. - correct answer ✔✔The classic example is a patient transferring childhood feelings about a parent onto their therapist. Drugs that are prone to abuse act on reward pathways, and the main "reward" neurotransmitter is dopamine. - correct answer ✔✔Serotonin and norepinephrine can play a role in the sensation of pain and pleasure, but they are not as directly involved in reward as dopamine. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter and is the most common, as 90% of brain cells are responsive to glutamate. In contrast, GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS, and it hyperpolarizes cells to reduce action potential firing. Alcohol binds and activates GABA receptors (in other words, alcohol is a GABA agonist), so the effects of GABA are associated with alcohol intoxication. Glycine is another inhibitory neurotransmitter found in the spinal cord and brainstem that can work in conjunction with GABA. Dopamine is used in reward and motor pathways. It is particularly associated with Parkinson's disease and the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Endorphins suppress pain and can produce

on what he already knew about him. - correct answer ✔✔In this example, Mr. Smith would make a judgment about John's behavior based on what he already knew about him. s. Similarly, self-serving bias is the tendency people have to credit their successes to themselves and their failures either to the actions of others or to situations. - correct answer ✔✔Biases can also relate to perceptions of group belonging, as in the in-group bias where people are biased towards those viewed as being part of their in-group. Biases can also play a role in responses to questionnaires; for instance, social desirability bias refers to the tendency that people have to give socially approved responses to questions in the context of research priming - correct answer ✔✔the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response Priming occurs when HM more successfully read the words to which he had previously been exposed than those he hadn't. . Rehearsal - correct answer ✔✔HM rehearses the numbers he is given when he is adding them together. dual coding - correct answer ✔✔coding that occurs when two different sensory traces are available to remember something Dual coding By associating the numbers with different animals, HM was attempting to assign each number to a mental image to be processed at a more connected level. This is the premise of dual coding. hippocampus - correct answer ✔✔A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. eidetic memory - correct answer ✔✔the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure Question 39

What type of long-term memory is intact in HM? A. Declarative memory Declarative memory is memory for information (facts, etc.) which can be recalled. HM does not have intact declarative memory. B. Episodic memory Show Explanation C. Procedural memory HM showed increased performance on the task in which he had to learn to draw a star. Procedural memory includes the memory of how to perform tasks, like riding a bike. D. Semantic memory - correct answer ✔✔ Cerebellum, found just underneath the occipital lobe, serves to direct complex coordinated movement, such as walking or playing the piano. - correct answer ✔✔found just underneath the occipital lobe, serves to direct complex coordinated movement, such as walking or playing the piano. CEREBELLUM=movement Question 40 That learning can take place in the cerebellum is demonstrated by which experiment? A. HM being asked to remember a three-digit number This task involved HM remembering semantic information, which the cerebellum is not involved with. B. HM being asked to learn to draw a star

Social construction theory views human activity as consisting of human creations made through countless individual human choices and through interactions, primarily mediated through language. - correct answer ✔✔Social construction theory views human activity as consisting of human creations made through countless individual human choices and through interactions, primarily mediated through language. Question 4 According to the author, each of the following would be examples of activities that are essentially human EXCEPT: A. modifying the environment by building a large structure that changes the flow of a stream, creating an artificial lake which improves access to food and other resources. The author concedes that animals can certainly make tools, like the structure described here, which sounds an awful lot like a beaver's dam. B. creating archaeological dig sites in an attempt to understand one's place by looking to one's past. This reflects an activity that the author connects specifically to human activity and human nature. C. using resources from one meta-tool to craft structures that would otherwise be impossible to build given the local natural resources. Show Explanation D. recording narrative in an artifact. - correct answer ✔✔