Fundamentals of Psychology: Emotions, Motivation, and Personality, Exams of Nursing

Download Fundamentals of Psychology: Emotions, Motivation, and Personality and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! Psychology 105 Final Exam Review Facial Feedback Hypothesis - correct answer ✔✔The process by which the facial muscles send messages to the brain about the basic emotion being expressed Hemisphere used to recognize facial expressions - correct answer ✔✔The right hemisphere of the brain Emotion Work - correct answer ✔✔Expression of an emotion that the person does not really feel, often because of a role requirement Definition of Emotion - correct answer ✔✔a state of arousal involving facial and bodily changes, brain activation, cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies towards action, all shaped by cultural rules People's ability to detect universal emotions; which emotion is easiest to detect? - correct answer ✔✔Anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise, contempt, and possibly pride - are recognized across cultures. Accuracy of reading these facial expressions increases among people of the same ethnicity. Emotions and epinephrine and norepinephrine - correct answer ✔✔When you are under stress of feeling an intense emotion, the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system spurs the adrenal glands to send out epinephrine and norepinephrine. The pupils dilate, widening to allow in more light; the heart beats faster, blood pressure increases, breathing speeds up, and blood sugar rises. These changes provide the body with the energy needed to take action - fight or flight Rationale behind the use of the polygraph; accuracy of polygraph - correct answer ✔✔The polygraph is based on the assumption that a lie generates emotional arousal. A person who is guilty and fearful of being found out will therefore have increased activity in the autonomic nervous system while responding to incriminating questions: faster heart rate, increased respiration rate, and increased electrical conductance of the skin. Many psychological scientists regard results as invalid because there are no physiological patterns of autonomic arousal are specific lying. Which part of the brain is associated with both positive and negative emotions? - correct answer ✔✔The right hemisphere of the brain predominates in the experience of both positive and negative emotions, particularly the amygdala Know that same event can produce different emotions depending on how person interprets event. Give an example - correct answer ✔✔third place winners happier than second place winners; one student could be extraordinarily happy with a grade of "A-" while another student could be disheartened. Display rules - correct answer ✔✔Social and cultural rules that regulate when, how, and where a person may express or suppress emotions Overriding the amygdala - correct answer ✔✔Parts of the Prefrontal Cortex are also involved in the regulations of emotions, helping us modify and control our feelings, keeping us on an even keel and respodning appropriately to situations. The cortex generates a more complete picture and can override signals sent by the amygdala. Facial muscles and "fake emotions" - correct answer ✔✔When people try to hide their feelings and put on an emotion, they generally use different groups of facial muscles than they do for authentic emotions. Gender differences during disagreements and why this might relate to men's willingness to discuss disagreements - correct answer ✔✔ The relation between thoughts and emotions - correct answer ✔✔ Gender and the ability to "read" emotional signals - correct answer ✔✔while the ability to read the emotions of others is supposedly a female skill, a series of experiments found that working class people of both sexes are more skilled in emphatic accuracy than upper class people are. Cultural rules that affect the way in which men and women express emotions - correct answer ✔✔Some cultures teach men to hide emotion and when it is shown, they consider it masculine. The opposite is true in other cultures and it frown upon for both genders in other. Hypothalamus: Cues: people eat more from a buffet when waters quickly replace their dirty dishes, thereby eliminating telltale signs of how much food has already been consumed. Restrained Eating: Timing: Culture: people eat more when they are being distracted by friends and the environment. Different cultures also eat different foods and have different eating habits. Achievement and Affiliation Motives—TAT - correct answer ✔✔ Elements of Emotions - correct answer ✔✔ Amygdala - correct answer ✔✔Brain structure involved in the arousal and regulation of emotion and the initial emotional response to sensory information Culture and weight considered attractive - correct answer ✔✔ Recognizing facial expressions—primary emotions - correct answer ✔✔ All terms related to Freud, Know the structure of personality as it relates to Freud (Ego, Id, Super Ego) - correct answer ✔✔Ego: reality principle, develops around 18 months of age. Think of ways to satisfy the Id rationally Id: pleasure principle, just want what brings pleasure, present in infancy Super Ego: morality principle, develops around the ages of 3-5 years old, determining right and wrong. The ideal standard by which you would want to live. Freud believed that the Super Ego and Id were often in conflict and that the Ego finds the balance between the two. Adaptation/good fortune/misfortune/happiness/impact bias - correct answer ✔✔ Relation between money and happiness - correct answer ✔✔The amount of money people earn shows no correlation to how happy people are Know which components of the personality (according to psychoanalysts) are conscious and in touch with reality - correct answer ✔✔Conscious: the part of you that is aware Unconscious: the part that is inaccessible to you Preconscious: part that you could access if you wanted to, it is just no what is on your mind at the moment Freud's psychosexual stages - correct answer ✔✔In order from youngest age to oldest Oral: a baby receives pleasure from sucking (breastfeeding, bottle, thumb, binky). Improper gratification in this area leads to fixation on the mouth and could result in behaviors such as biting one's nails, smoking, or overeating Anal: children receive pleasure from pooping and "holding it." 18 months -3 years of age, the potty training ages. Children can learn that bodily functions are bad and be caused to fixate on messes by either becoming very messy or the complete opposite - uptight and not allow accidents or mistakes in other areas of life. This is why we call people "anal" Phallic: preschool aged children. The child falls in love with the opposite sex parent and feels that they have to compete for their affection with the other parent. They learn that boys and girls are physically different. This is distressing to them because the fear the opposite sex's genital fate. Boys fear that if they are not good enough, they will be castrated like their mom. Girls assume their mom castrated them and so they feel "penis envy." because of these fears, they begin to identify with the same sex parent. Latent: no sexual desires present. 6-11 years of age. Boys and girls don't really like each other at this stage - "cooties" Genital: first develops in adolescence. Desire for mature sexual relationships Know Skinner's theory of personality and all terms related to that theory (e.g., response tendencies) - correct answer ✔✔Differences in our learning experiences are the main reason behind our individual differences in our behavior. If we want to experience reinforcement, then we should develop personality traits that are positive such as being understanding, compassionate, empathetic, and a positive thinker. Our behavior and personality traits are therefore shaped and controlled by society. If we want negative traits to become positive ones, we have to first change our environment. Know Humanistic theory—self- actualization - correct answer ✔✔According to Maslow, self-actualization represents growth of an individual toward fulfillment of the highest needs such as finding a meaning in life. Humanist Psychology: the psychological approach that emphasizes free will, personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential. Maslow's hierarchy - correct answer ✔✔Abraham Maslow envisioned people's motives as forming a pyramid. At the bottom level were basic survival needs for food, sleep, and water; at the next level were security needs, for shelter and safety; at the third level were social needs, for belonging and affection; at the fourth level were esteem needs, for self-respect and the respect of others; and at the top, when all other needs have been met, were those for self-actualization and self-transcendence. Reciprocal Determinism - correct answer ✔✔in social-cognitive theories, the two-way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits. Social learning theory - correct answer ✔✔people acquire central personality traits from their learning history and their resulting expectations and beliefs. Rogers and Maslow are __________ - correct answer ✔✔Humanists GABA: a major inhibitory neurotransmitter Glutamate: major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory Endorphins: pain relief, feeling of euphoria Action Potentials (The all or none principle) - correct answer ✔✔The firing of a neuron is an all-or-none event, like turning on a light switch. Post Synaptic Potentials - correct answer ✔✔changes in the membrane potential of the postsynaptic terminal of a chemical synapse. Postsynaptic potentials are graded potentials, and should not be confused with action potentials although their function is to initiate or inhibit action potentials. Normal Resting potential of a neuron - correct answer ✔✔about -70mV. This means that the inside of the neuron is 70mV less than the outside. At rest, there are relatively more sodium ions outside the neuron and more potassium ion inside that neuron Central and Peripheral Nervous System - correct answer ✔✔Central: complex of nerve tissues that controls the activities of the body. Composed of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral: part of the nervous system that consists of the nerves and ganglia on the outside of the brain and spinal cord Autonomic and Somatic subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System - correct answer ✔✔Autonomic: the part of the nervous system responsible for the control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes Somatic: part of the PNS associated with skeletal muscle voluntary control of body movements. Sympathetic (Fight or Flight) and Parasympathetic - correct answer ✔✔Sympathetic: controls the body's responses to a perceived threat and is responsible for the "fight or flight" response Parasympathetic: controls homeostasis and the body at rest and is responsible for the body's "rest and digest" functions Endocrine System, glands, and hormones - correct answer ✔✔hormones are produced primarily in endocrine glands, such as the pancreas, ovaries, testes, and adrenal glands. Hormones are released directly into the bloodstream, which carries them to organs and cells that may be far from their point of origin. Examples include melatonin, oxytocin, adrenal hormones (cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine), and sex hormones (testosterone, progesterone, estrogen) Operational Definition - correct answer ✔✔a precise definition of a term in a hypothesis, which specifies the operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon being defines. What type of research allows you to infer cause and effect? - correct answer ✔✔true experiment reasearch Placebo effect, experimental biases - correct answer ✔✔Placebo effect: the apparent success of a medication or treatment due to the patient's expectations or hopes rather than to the drug or treatment itself Confirmation Bias: the tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one's own beliefs Volunteer Bias: a shortcoming of findings derived from a sample of volunteers instead of a representative sample; the volunteers may differ from those who did not volunteer Hindsight Bias: the tendency to overestimate one's ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known; the "i knew it all along" phenomenon Glia - correct answer ✔✔cells that support, nurture, and insulate neurons, remove debris when neurons die, enhance the formation and maintenance of neural connections, and modify neuronal functioning Myelin Sheath - correct answer ✔✔a fatty insulation that may surround the axon of a neuron Terminal Buttons - correct answer ✔✔located at the end of axons. neurotransmitters contained in sacs What determines whether a drug will be labeled an agonist or an antagonist ,with regard to a neurotransmitters ? - correct answer ✔✔agonists mimic neurotransmitter action and antagonists oppose the action of a neurotransmitter Why do psychologists conduct a number of studies with identical twins—especially when they are interested in the role of genetics? - correct answer ✔✔to support or refute theories based on genetics especially with regard to behavior and personality Various Brain Waves and Levels of Consciousness - correct answer ✔✔With regard to sleep Stage 1: your brain waves become small and irregular, and you feel yourself drifting on the edge of consciousness, in a state of light sleep. If awakened, you may recall fantasies or a few visual images. Stage 2: your brain emits occasional short bursts of rapid, high peaking waves called sleep spindles. Minor noises probably won't disturb you. Stage 3: In addition to the waves that are characteristic of stage 2, your brain occasionally emits delta waves, very slow waves with high peaks. Your breathing and pulse have slowed down, your muscles are relaxed, and you are hard to wake up. Stage 4: delta waves have now largely taken over, and you are in deep sleep. It will probably take vigorous shaking or a loud noise to awaken you. Oddly though, if you walk in your sleep, this is where you are likely to do so. No one yest knows what causes sleepwalking, which occurs more often in children than adults, but it seems to involved unusual patterns of delta-wave activity. REM sleep - correct answer ✔✔stands for Rapid Eye Movement sleep. Sleep periods characterized by eye movement, loss of muscle tone, and vivid dreams. Ascending Reticular Activating System - correct answer ✔✔The reticular activating system (RAS), is a set of connected nuclei in the brains of vertebrates that is responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep- wake transitions. . Discrimination: organism leans a response to a particular stimulus but doesn't generalize it to similar stimuli Operant Conditioning - correct answer ✔✔the process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences Know who BF Skinner was and what is meant by a "Skinner Box" - correct answer ✔✔BF Skinner was a Behaviorist. The Skinner Box was a favorite experimental tool that had a chamber equipped with a device that delivers a reinforcer (usually food) when an animal makes a desired response, or a punisher (such as a brief shock) when the animal makes an undesired response. Reinforcement contingencies—Reinforcement Schedules (Fixed Ratio, etc.) - correct answer ✔✔Continuous Reinforcement Intermitten (Partial) Reinforcement Ratio Schedules: - Fixed: takes a fixed number of times of doing a response to get the reward - Variable: person never knows when response will get a reward. Interval Schedules: - Fixed: person must do something within fixed time interval to get reward - Variable: you never know when you will be checked if you did the response to get the reward Know the following terms with respect to Operant conditioning: acquisition, shaping, and extinction - correct answer ✔✔Acquisition: the initial stage of learning a new pattern of responding Shaping: individual will not produce desired response that you initially want; you have to shape his/her behavior: - reward person as he/she gets closer to desired behavior in hopes that they will eventually emit the desired response Know the effectiveness of reinforcement if there is a delay between the response and the reinforcement - correct answer ✔✔ Primary vs. Secondary reinforcer - correct answer ✔✔Primary: satisfies biological needs Secondary: conditional reinforcement Know the difference between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Especially know the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment - correct answer ✔✔Positive Reinforcement: response followed by giving a rewarding stimulus Negative Reinforcement: response followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus Know the difference between escape learning and avoidance - correct answer ✔✔Escape Learning: response gets the organism out of a negative situation Avoidance: person has a warning that a noxious stimulus is forthcoming. Person removes him/herself from noxious environment, therefore person avoids noxious stimulus Know about observational and vicarious learning - correct answer ✔✔a process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience' sometimes called vicarious learning Know about the capacity of short-term memory, sensory memory, working memory, and Long Term Memory - correct answer ✔✔Short-term Memory: holds a limited amount of information for a brief period of time, perhaps up to 30 seconds or so, unless a conscious effort is made to keep it there longer Long-term Memory: accounts for a longer storage, from a few minutes to decades Sensory Memory: book calls it sensory register. Incoming sensory information makes a brief stop in the sensory register, which momentarily retains it in the form of sensory images. Working Memory: in many models of memory, a cognitively complex form of short-term memory; it involves active mental processes that control retrieval of information from long-term memory and interpret that information appropriately for a given task The role of attention in getting information into Memory - correct answer ✔✔ Know Levels of Processing Theory --Shallow vs. Deep Processing - correct answer ✔✔Deep Processing: in the encoding of information, the processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus. Shallow Processing: when you process only the physical or sensory features of a stimulus Know what the research shows about elaboration, visual imagery, and self-referent encoding - correct answer ✔✔Elaboration involves associating new items of information with material that has already been stored or with other new facts. It can also involve analyzing the physical, sensory, or semantic features of an item Flashbulb memories - correct answer ✔✔vivid recollections of emotional and important events characterized by surprise, illumination, and seemingly photographic detail Know reasons given for forgetting - correct answer ✔✔information in sensory and short-term memory appears to decay if it does not receive further processing. New information may also erase and replace old information in long-term memory. Know semantic vs. episodic vs. procedural memory - correct answer ✔✔Semantic: memories of general knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions Episodic: memories of personally experiences events and the contexts in which they occurred. Procedural: memories for the performance of actions or skills - "knowing how" Know about false memories - correct answer ✔✔your feelings about an event, no matter how strong they are, do not guarantee that the event really took place Importance of hippocampus and memory - correct answer ✔✔The hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of personal memories as well as the imagination of future events