Download General Psychology Exam 2. and more Exams Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! General Psychology Exam 2 information-processing theory - an approach to the study of mental structures and processes that uses the computer as a model for human thinking encoding - The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory storage - the process of keeping or maintaining information in memory retrieval - the process of bringing to mind information that has been stored in memory memory - a cognitive process that includes encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. ESR sensory memory - the memory system that holds information from the senses for a period of time ranging from only a fraction of a second to about 2 seconds. short-term memory (STM) - the memory system that codes information according to sound and holds about seven (from 5- 9) items for less than 30 seconds without rehearsal; also called working memory. displacement - the event that occurs when short-term memory is filled to capacity and each new, incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten. 1 | P a g e chunking - a memory strategy that involves grouping or organizing bits of information into larger units, which are easier to remember. rehearsal - the acts of purposely repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory. working memory - The memory subsystem that we use when we try to understand information, remember it, or use it to solve a problem or communicate with someone. maintenance rehearsal - repeating information in short-term memory until it is no longer needed; may eventually lead to storage of information on long-term memory. elaborative rehearsal - a memory strategy that involves relating new information to something that is already known. long-term memory (LTM) - the memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity that contains vast stores of a person's permanent or relatively permanent memories. declarative memory - the subsystem within long-term memory that stores facts, information, and personal life events that can be brought to mind verbally or in the form of images and then declared or stated; also called explicit memory. episodic memory - the type of declarative memory that records events as they have been subjectively experienced. semantic memory - 2 | P a g e long-term potential (LTP) - an increase in the efficiency of neural transmission at the synapses that lasts for hours or longer. amnesia - a partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or some psychological cause. anterograde amnesia - the inability to form long-term memories of events occurring after a brain injury or brain surgery, although memories formed before the trauma are usually intact and shot-term memory is unaffected. retrograde amnesia - a loss of memory for experiences that occurred shortly before a loss of consciousness dementias - a collection of neurological disorders in which degenerative processes in the brain diminish sufferers' ability to remember and process information. nonsense syllable - a consonant-vowel-consonant combination that does not spell a word and is used in memory research encoding failure - a cause of forgetting that occurs when information was never put into long-term memory. decay theory - the oldest theory of forgetting, which holds that memories, if not used, fade with time and ultimately disappear altogether. interference - a cause of forgetting that occurs because information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder ability to remember it. 5 | P a g e consolidation failure - any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a long-term memory form fitting. motivated forgetting - forgetting through suppression or repression in order to protect onself from material that is painful, frightening, or otherwise unpleasant. repression - completely removing unpleasant memories from one's consciousness, so that one is no longer aware that a painful event occurred. prospective forgetting - not remembering to carry out some intended action. retrieval failure - not remembering something one is certain of knowing. tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon - the experience of knowing that a particular piece of information has been learned but being unable to retrieve it. over learning - practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error. massed practice - learning is one long practice session without rest periods spaced practice - learning is short practice sessions with rest periods in between. Learning - 6 | P a g e a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation. classical conditioning - type of learning organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. stimulus - any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds plural is stimuli reflex - involuntary response to a particular stimulus (salivating to food) conditioned reflexes - learned involuntary responses. unconditioned response (UR) - a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning. unconditioned stimulus (US) - a stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without prior learning. conditioned stimulus (CS) - a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response. conditioned response (CR) - the learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. 7 | P a g e an increase in the frequency of a behavior that occurs as the result of the consequence that the behavior produces. positive reinforcement - an increase in a behavior that occurs as the result of an added consequence. negative reinforcement - an increase in a behavior that occurs because increasing the behavior results in the termination of an unpleasant condition or stimulus. primary reinforcer - a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning. secondary reinforcer - a reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers. continuous reinforcement - reinforcement that is administered after every desired or correct response; the most effective method of conditioning a new response. partial reinforcement - a pattern of reinforcement in which some but not all correct responses are reinforced. schedules of reinforcement - systematic processes for administering partial reinforcement that produce distinct rates and patterns of responses and degrees of resistance to extinction. fixed-ratio schedule - a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, nonreinforced responses. variable-ratio schedule - 10 | P a g e a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responses, based on an average ratio. fixed-interval schedule - a schedule in which a reinforcer is given following the first correct response after a specific period of time has elapsed. variable-interval schedule - a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after the first correct response that follows a varying time of non-reinforcement, based on an average time. partial-reinforcement effect - the greater resistance to extinction that occurs when a portion, rather than all, of the correct responses are reinforced. punishment - a decrease in the frequency of a behavior caused by some kind of consequence positive punishment - a decrease in behavior that results from an added consequence negative punishment - a decrease in behavior that results from a removed consequence avoidance learning - learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequences or phobias. learned helplessness - a passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned through repeated exposure to inescapable or unavoidable aversive events. biofeedback - 11 | P a g e the use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that they can learn, with practice, to exercise control over them. behavior modification - a method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning. token economy - a program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges. cognitive process - mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations. insight - the sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent. latent learning - learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so. cognitive map - a mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a maze. observational learning (modeling) - learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation. model - the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated. 12 | P a g e