Human Anatomy Nightingale, Exams of Anatomy

Download Human Anatomy Nightingale and more Exams Anatomy in PDF only on Docsity! Human Anatomy Nightingale Anatomy - -the study of the structure of the human body -Also called morphology - been around since 2300 years _ related to physiology morphology - the science of form. physiology - the study of body function Gross anatomy - is the study of body structures that can be examined by the naked eye—the bones, lungs, and muscles, - Important technique for studying GA is Dissection Studies of gross anatomy can be approached in several different ways. - regional anatomy Surface anatomy systemic anatomy, - by contrast, all the organs with related functions are studied together. - dissection - in which connective tissue is removed from between the body organs so that the organs can be seen more clearly. Then the organs are cut open for viewing. 1 | P a g e regional anatomy - all structures in a single body region, such as the abdomen or head, are examined as a group. -many injuries and diseases involve specific body regions (sprained ankle, sore throat, heart disease); furthermore, surgeons need extensive and detailed knowledge of each body region. surface anatomy, - -the study of shapes and markings (called landmarks) on the surface of the body that reveal the underlying organs. -used to identify the muscles that bulge beneath the skin in weight lifters, and clinicians use it to locate blood vessels for placing catheters, feeling pulses, and drawing blood. Microscopic anatomy, - is the study of structures that are so small they can be seen only with a microscope.These structures include cells and cell parts; groups of cells, called tissues; and the microscopic details of the organs of the body (stomach, spleen, and so on). -A knowledge of microscopic anatomy is important because physiological and disease processes occur at the cellular level. Two branches of anatomy explore how body structures form, grow, and mature - Developmental anatomy Embryology Developmental anatomy - Traces the structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span and the effects of aging. Embryology - is the study of how body structures form and develop before birth. -helps to explain birth defects, which are anatomical abnormalities that occur during embryonic development and are evident after birth. Some specialized branches of anatomy are used primarily for medical diagnosis and scientific research. - 2 | P a g e a discrete structure made up of more than one tissue. "MOST" organs contain all four tissues. - The liver, brain, femur, and heart body's organ systems - integumentary (skin), skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. meter - which is a little longer than a yardstick. centimeter - a hundredth of a meter micrometer (μm) - millionth of a meter Cells, organelles (structures found inside cells), and tissues are measured in - micrometers. Human cells average - about 10 μm in diameter, although they range from 5 μm to 100 μm. The human cell with the largest diameter, the egg cell (ovum), is about the size of the tiniest dot you could make on this page with a pencil. liter (l) - volume slightly larger than a quart; milliliter (ml) - one-thousandth of a liter 5 | P a g e kilogram (kg) - mass equal to about 2.2 pounds, gram (g) - is a thousandth of a kilogram The urinary system - eliminates wastes and regulates water and ion balance. The respiratory system - supplies blood with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. anatomical position - person stands erect with feet flat on the ground, toes pointing forward, and eyes facing forward. The palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed away from the body. axial and appendicular - The fundamental divisions of the body axial region - it makes up the main axis of the body, consists of the head, neck, and trunk. The trunk, in turn, is divided into the thorax (chest), abdomen, and pelvis; the trunk also includes the region around the anus and external genitals, called the perineum appendicular region - of the body consists of the limbs, which are also called appendages or extremities. The fundamental divisions of the body are subdivided into smaller regions The most frequently used body planes - sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes, which lie at right angles to one another sagittal plane - 6 | P a g e extends vertically and divides the body into left and right parts (Figure 1.4a). The specific sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline is the median plane, or midsagittal plane. All other sagittal planes, offset from the midline, - parasagittal frontal (coronal) plane - also extends vertically and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts transverse (horizontal) plane - runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts A transverse section is also called a - cross section. oblique sections - Cuts made along any plane that lies diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical. Are seldom used. -Not frontal, transverse, or sagittal vertebrates. - This group also includes cats, rats, birds, lizards, frogs, and fish and humans All vertebrates share the following basic features - Tube-within-a-tube body plan. Bilateral symmetry. Dorsal hollow nerve cord Notochord and vertebrae. Segmentation. Pharyngeal pouches. Tube-within-a-tube body plan - 7 | P a g e These serous membranes (indicated by the red lines in Figure 1.7) - are named pleura, serous pericardium, and peritoneum, respectively. Serous cavities contain a thin layer of - serous fluid Serous fluid - This fluid is produced by both serous membranes. The slippery serous fluid allows the visceral organs to slide with little friction across the cavity walls as they carry out their routine functions. This freedom of movement is extremely important for organs that move or change shape, such as the pumping heart and the churning stomach. The abdomen is divided into four quadrants - The rib cage - As protection for the thoracic organs Protects the organs in the most superior part of the abdomen The liver and the spleen - two blood-rich organs particularly vulnerable to injury, are protected by the surrounding rib cage on the right and left sides, respectively The kidneys - located along the posterior abdominal wall, are also protected by the inferior ribs. Which tube of the body shows evidence of segmentation, the outer tube or the inner tube? - The outer tube shows evidence of segmentation. What is the outer layer of serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity called? - The parietal pleura is the outer layer of serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity. 10 | P a g e Microscopy - is the examination of small structures with a microscope 1600s Two main types of microscopes are now used to investigate the fine structure of organs, tissues, and cells: - the light microscope (LM) and the transmission electron microscope (TEM or just EM). Light microscopy And TEM - illuminates(Lights up) body tissue with a beam of light, whereas electron microscopy uses a beam of electrons. LM is used for lower-magnification viewing; EM, for higher magnification Light microscopy can produce - Sharp, detailed images of tissues and cells, but not of the small structures within cells (organelles). low -Resolution—its inability to reveal small structures clearly transmission electron microscope - Uses electron beams of much smaller wavelength to produce sharp images at much greater magnification, thus revealing the fine details of cells and tissues. Elaborate steps are taken to prepare tissue for microscopic viewing - 1. Fixed 2.Cut into sections 3. Stained The stains used in light microscopy are beautifully colored organic dyes, most of which were originally developed - clothing manufacturers in the mid-1800s Dyes with negatively charged molecules - Stain the positively charged structures of the cell or tissue, and are called acidic stains. 11 | P a g e Positively charged dyes, - by contrast, are called basic stains because they bind to, and stain, negatively charged structures. Because different parts of cells and tissues take up different dyes, the stains distinguish the different anatomical structures. commonly used histological stains is a combination of two dyes, - hematoxylin and eosin (H&E stain). Hematoxylin - is a basic stain that binds to the acidic structures of the cell (the nucleus, ribosomes, rough ER) and colors them a dark blue to purple hue. Eosin - An acidic stain, binds to basic cytoplasmic structures and extracellular components, coloring them red to pink. For transmission electron microscopy, tissue sections - are stained with heavy-metal salts. -These metals deflect electrons in the beam to different extents, thus providing contrast in the image. Electron-microscope images contain only - shades of gray because color is a property of light, not of electron waves. The image may be artificially colored to enhance contrast scanning electron microscopy - provides three-dimensional pictures of whole, unsectioned surfaces with striking clarity The SEM image is accurate and looks very real In tissue stained with H&E stain, what color are the cellular nuclei? - In a tissue stained with H&E, the cell nuclei are colored dark blue to purple. 12 | P a g e Is an advanced procedure that produces images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body. The special advantage of PET is that its images indicate regions of cellular activity. -identifies the body's most active cells and pinpoints the body regions that receive the greatest supply of blood PET Example - radioactively tagged sugar or water molecules are injected into the bloodstream and traced to the body areas that take them up in the greatest quantity. This procedure identifies the body's most active cells and pinpoints the body regions that receive the greatest supply of blood. As the radioactive material decays, it gives off energy in the form of gamma rays. Sensors within the doughnut-shaped scanner pick up the emitted gamma rays, which are translated into electrical impulses and sent to the computer. A picture of the isotope's location is then constructed on the viewing screen. PET scans are used in oncology - (cancer treatment) for detecting and staging tumors and for assessing cancer therapy. PET is used to assess the - The functional flow of blood and areas of high metabolic activity. In the brain, it can depict areas of the normal brain most active during specific tasks (speech, seeing, comprehension), In cancer treatment, PET imaging is used - to monitor the size and distribution of tumors and the response of cancerous tumors to therapeutic treatment PET imaging is increasingly being used - in combination with CT or MRI to correlate metabolic activity of cancerous tissues with alteration of anatomic structure. In sonography, or ultrasound imaging - the body is probed with pulses of high-frequency (ultrasonic) sound waves that reflect (echo) off the body's tissues. Sonography has two distinct advantages over other imaging techniques. - 15 | P a g e First, the equipment is relatively inexpensive. Second, ultrasound seems to be safer than ionizing forms of radiation, with fewer harmful effects on living tissues. ultrasound is the imaging technique of choice - for determining the age and health of a developing fetus.It is also used to visualize the gallbladder and other viscera and, increasingly, the arteries to detect atherosclerosis (thickening and hardening of the arterial walls) Sonography is of little value for - viewing air-filled structures (lungs) or structures surrounded by bone (brain and spinal cord) because sound waves do not penetrate hard objects well and rapidly dissipate in air. Ultrasound images are somewhat blurry, although - their sharpness is being improved by using higher-frequency sound waves. Liquid contrast media containing sound-reflecting bubbles can be injected into the bloodstream to better reveal the vessels and heart. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - -is a technique with tremendous appeal because it produces high-contrast images of soft tissues -an area in which X-ray imaging is weak. -does not use radiation for generating an image -detects the levels of the element hydrogen in the body, most of which is in water. -tends to distinguish body tissues from one another on the basis of differences in water content. -peers easily through the skull to reveal the brain. -can distinguish the fatty white matter from the more watery gray matter of the brain. -Many tumors show up distinctly -has even revealed brain tumors missed by direct observation during exploratory surgery. -The soft tissues of the joints, ligaments, and cartilage are also visualized well with MRI. Functional MRI (fMRI). - -This technique measures blood oxygen, so it reveals the amount of oxygenated blood flowing to specific body regions. 16 | P a g e -Pinpoint much smaller brain areas than PET can, works faster, and requires no messy radioactive tracers. 17 | P a g e