Immune System and Endocrine System, Exams of Nursing

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What kinds of cells engulf whatever foreign cells and molecules they encounter and recognize? - answer ✅✅Phagocytic Cells C Which of the following is a response of our innate defense system? - answer ✅✅Inflammation Which of the following is one of the body's first lines of defense against infection? - answer ✅✅Skin A role of the lymphatic system is to - answer ✅✅return tissue fluid to the circulatory system Innate Immunity or Defense - answer ✅✅the part that is always ready in its final form and ready to act. It doesn't change since the time we are born and attacks pathogens indiscriminately.

Adaptive Immunity or Defense - answer ✅✅continually develops over the lifetime as you have certain encounters with specific pathogens and is found only in vertebrates. It must be activated by exposure to a specific invader. Detail three ways that our external innate defenses protect us from infection - answer ✅✅intact skin forming a tough outer layer that bacteria cant penetrate, nostril hairs filter particles from the incoming air, and ear wax traps pathogens before they can travel too far down the ear canal. What are the functions of phagocytic cells? - answer ✅✅engulf foreign cells or molecules and debris from dead cells by cellular eating (phagocytosis). What are the functions of natural killer cells? - answer ✅✅recognize virus-infected and cancerous body cells and release chemicals that kill diseased cells. Describe (not list) each major step of the inflammatory response.

• answer ✅✅There is an initial tissue injury which releases chemical signals. Dilation and increases leakiness of local blood vessels creates the migration of phagocytic cells to the area. Phagocytic ells engulf bacteria and cell debris. The tissue heals Why do our bodies produce histamine? - answer ✅✅So that blood vessels can dilate during an inflammatory response to injured cells.

List the two main functions of the lymphatic system. - answer ✅✅to return tissue fluid to the circulatory system and to fight infection What is an antigen (and example)? - answer ✅✅any molecule that elicits a response from a lymphocyte (parasitic worms) What is an antibody? - answer ✅✅a defense protein that binds antigens What type of leukocyte produces antibodies? - answer ✅✅B cells What are memory cells? - answer ✅✅long-lived lymphocytes that respond to subsequent exposures to a specific pathogen. Contrast the primary immune response and the secondary immune response - answer ✅✅The secondary immune response is more rapid, of greater magnitude, and of longer duration than the primary immune response. Explain how allergies develop - answer ✅✅They are triggered by histamines released from mast cells. What is an autoimmune disease (example)? - answer ✅✅an immunological disorder in which the immune system improperly attacks the body's own molecules (Crohn's disease). Humoral Immune Response - answer ✅✅antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in the blood and lymph

Cell-meditated immune response - answer ✅✅A type of adaptive immunity defense, produced by T cells, that results from the action of defensive cells, in contrast to the action of free-floating defensive antibody proteins of the humoral response. What is a hormone? How are hormones carried from one part of the body to another? - answer ✅✅A chemical signal that is released by endocrine cells and carried to all locations in the body, usually via the blood. Define "primary" endocrine organ and give an example. - answer ✅✅Secrets hormones into the blood (thyroid and pituitary glands) What is the difference in the way that lipid-soluble and water- soluble hormones interact with their target cells? - answer ✅✅Lipid-soluble hormones trigger responses after entering the cell while water-soluble hormones trigger responses without entering the cell. What are the four main chemical classes of hormones? - answer ✅✅Nucleus, endocrine cell, membrane enclosed sacs, and hormone molecules Which gland is the main control center for the entire endocrine system? - answer ✅✅hypothalamus How do the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary interact? - answer ✅✅The hypothalamus receives information about the internal condition of the body and about the external environment

and then responds by sending out appropriate nervous or endocrine signals. These signals control the pituitary gland which secrete hormones that influence body functions. List ALL hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland AND state their functions. - answer ✅✅the human growth hormone which promotes the development and enlargement of all to the body and the thyroid hormone which effects many functions of the body include including metabolic rate, heart rate, blood pressure, and tolerance to cold Which bodily functions does the thyroid gland control? - answer ✅✅Oxygen consumption, metabolic rate, and help regulate development and maturation Which two hormones maintain calcium homeostasis? How do these two hormones interact? - answer ✅✅Parathyroid hormone acts to increase blood calcium levels, while calcitonin acts to decrease blood calcium levels. This interaction between parathyroid hormone and calcitonin is also an important part of bone remodeling. Describe the negative feedback loop controlling glucose homeostasis (which hormones are produced and when). - answer ✅✅Rising glucose concentration in the blood (shortly after you eat a carbohydrate rich meal) stimulates the pancreas to secrete more insulin in the blood. Insulin binds body cells with insulin receptors, stimulating them to make up more glucose from the blood. Liver and skeletal muscles take up glucose and use it to make glycogen which they store. As a result, the glucose levels fall to the set point, and the cells of the pancreas lose their stimulus to secrete insulin.

What hormones do the adrenal glands produce? What changes to the body do these hormones induce? - answer ✅✅They produce epinephrine and norepinephrine which stimulate liver cells to release glucose, making more fuel available for cellular work. they also prepare the body for action by raising blood pressure, breathing rate, heart rate, and metabolic rate. Describe the role of the adrenal medulla in a short-term stress response. - answer ✅✅It secretes the fight or flight hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine Describe the role of the corticosteroids in the long-term stress response. - answer ✅✅It secretes cortisol which is needed when the body is coping with stressful situations. It can suppress less immediate functions such as the body's immune system. What are the male gonads? What are the female gonads? - answer ✅✅testes and ovaries How do estrogen differ from progestins? - answer ✅✅Estrogens maintain the female reproductive system and promote the development of such female features such as breast and wider hips an progesterone is primarily involved in preparing the uterus to support a developing embryo Detail the circumstances that would cause an organism to reproduce via sexual reproduction vs asexual reproduction. - answer ✅✅An organism would produce asexually when food is ample, and conditions are favorable. But when seasons change,

organisms may reproduce sexually to produce individuals to have well-adapted individuals. Trace the path of a sperm cell from where it is created to where it is released from the body, listing each structure it passes through on the way. - answer ✅✅Sperm is created in the testes, passed into the epididymis, (through ejaculation) travels through the vas deferens, emptying into the urethra. Trace the path of an oocyte from where it is created to where it is released from the body(assuming pregnancy does NOT occur), listing each structure it passes through on the way. - answer ✅✅An oocyte develops after FSH from the pituitary gland stimulates one of the dormant follicles to develop. The follicle enlarges, and the primary oocyte completes meiosis one beginning meiosis two. When the secondary oocyte forms, the pituitary gland secretes LH, which triggers ovulation. The ripening follicle bursts releasing its secondary oocyte from the ovary. The second oocyte enters the oviduct and completes meiosis two. Where in the female reproductive tract does fertilization occur? - answer ✅✅The oviduct Describe the process of sperm formation (spermatogenesis). - answer ✅✅Sperm develop inside the testes in coiled tubes called the seminiferous tubules. Cells near the outer walls of the tubules multiply constantly by mitosis. Each day, about 3 million of them differentiate into primary spermatocytes, the cells that undergo meiosis. Meiosis I of a primary spermatocyte produces two haploid secondary spermatocytes. Then meiosis II forms four cells, each with the haploid number of chromosomes. A sperm cell that develops from one of these haploid cells is gradually pushed toward the center of the seminiferous tubule. From there, it

passes into the epididymis, where it matures, becomes motile, and is stored until ejaculation. Because the pre-sperm cells continuously replenish themselves, there is a never-ending supply of spermatocytes, allowing males to produce sperm throughout their adult lives. Describe the process of egg formation (oogenesis). - answer ✅✅ How many days following the onset of menstruation does ovulation typically occur? - answer ✅✅ 14 On which days of a 28-day female reproductive cycle are blood levels of estrogen the highest? - answer ✅✅11- Which hormone triggers ovulation? - answer ✅✅luteinizing hormone (LH) How do oral contraceptives prevent pregnancy? - answer ✅✅They contain varying formulations of synthetic estrogen and/or synthetic progesterone. A steady intake of these hormones stimulates their constant levels during pregnancy. In response to being "fooled" that pregnancy has occurred, the hypothalamus fails to send the signals that start the development of an ovarian follicle. Ovulation ceases, preventing pregnancy. Describe the five stages of human fertilization (Fig. 26.12). - answer ✅✅1. The sperm squeezes through cells left over from the follicle

2. The sperm's acrosomal enzymes digest the jelly coat surrounding the egg

3. The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse
4. The sperm nucleus enters the egg cytoplasm
5. The sperm and egg chromosomes intermingle Describe the structure and function of the placenta. - answer ✅✅The placenta is the organ that provides nourishment and oxygen to the embryo and helps dispose of its wastes. The placenta also allows protective antibodies to pass from the mother to the fetus. What is the role of the corpus luteum? - answer ✅✅to produce hormones that maintain the uterine lining during the first months of pregnancy What is in virto fertilization? - answer ✅✅It is uniting sperm and egg in a laboratory container, followed by the placement of a resulting early embryo into the mother's uterus (test tube baby) Describe the three stages of labor - answer ✅✅The three stages of labor include the dilation o the cervix, expulsion which is the delivery of the infant, and lastly the delivery of the placenta. Describe the three major structural components of a neuron. - answer ✅✅The three structural components are dendrites which receive incoming messages from other neurons and convey that information toward the cell body, an axon that transmits signals toward a receiving cell, and a synaptic terminal which relays signals to a receiving cell.

Describe how the depolarization of an excitable cell leads to an action potential - answer ✅✅ Describe how neurons use neurotransmitters to communicate across the synaptic cleft. - answer ✅✅An action potential arrives at the synaptic terminal. The action potential transition causes vessels filled with neurotransmitters to fuse with the plasma membrane of descending neurons and release their new neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the cleft and bind to complementary receptors on ion channel proteins and the receiving neuron's plasma membrane. the binding of neurotransmitter to receptors opens the ion channels. With the channels open, ions can diffuse into the receiving neuron. the neurotransmitter is broken down or transported back into the sending neuron causing the receiving cells' ion channels in the play asthma membrane to close. The last step ensures that the neurotransmitter's effect on the receiving neuron is brief and precise. What structures form the central nervous system? - answer ✅✅brain and spinal cord Describe the role of the peripheral nervous system. - answer ✅✅It controls the motor and autonomic nervous systems. That means the control of skeletal muscle, rest and digest, and fight or flight. Contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the nervous system. - answer ✅✅The sympathetic division prepares the body for intense, energy-consuming activities, such as fighting or fleeing. The parasympathetic division primes somebody for activities related to the long-term needs of the

body. this includes stimulating the digestive organs, maintaining an active immune response, and decreasing the heart rate. List the four lobes of the brain and their major functions. - answer ✅✅1. The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system, serves as a homeostatic control center, controls the pituitary gland, and acts as a biological clock

2. The cerebrum performs sophisticated integration. The outer layer is the cerebral cortex which is involved in memory, learning, speech, and emotions.
3. The brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. It regulates vital functions like breathing and serves as a sensory and motor filter for other parts of the brain. What is sensory transduction - answer ✅✅When receptors cell converts one type of signal to an electrical signal What are the major types of sensory receptors (what do they detect) and give an example of each? - answer ✅✅1. Thermoreceptors in the skin detect heat or cold. An example is the hypothalamus keeping a mammal's body temperature within a narrow range.
4. Mechanoreceptors are stimulated by touch and pressure, stretching, motion, and sound. One example is the touch receptor at the base of a cat's whisker. It helps a cat detect objects in the dark.
5. Chemoreceptors include sensory cells in the nose and tastebuds. An example would be sensors in the arteries that monitor blood.
6. Electromagnetic receptors are sensitive to wavelengths such as magnetism and light. An example would be the human eye.

How do rods and cones differ in the way they detect light? - answer ✅✅Rods are extremely sensitive to light and let us see in dim light while cones are stimulated by bright light and can distinguish color but contribute little to night vision. What role do the bones of the middle ear play in the conversion sound waves in the air to pressure waves in the fluid of the inner ear? - answer ✅✅As the bones vibrate they push on the membrane to generate vibrations in the fluid that fills the inner ear. What are two functions of the skeletal system? - answer ✅✅Protect the body's organs and provide support Describe the three different types of joints and give an example of where they can be found in the body? - answer ✅✅1. Ball-and- socket joint and an example would be the shoulder

2. Hinge joints and an example would be the elbow with movement in a single direction
3. Pivot joints and an example with be the elbow with partial rotation Describe the sliding-filament model of muscle contraction. - answer ✅✅When the muscle is fully contracted, thin filaments overlap the middle of the sarcomere. The contraction only shortens the sarcomere; it does not change the length of the thick and thin filaments. What is the relationship between motor neurons and muscle fibers? - answer ✅✅Muscle fibers are stimulated to contract when a

motor neuron releases a neurotransmitter. A motor neuron can stimulate more than one muscle fiber because each neuron has many branches.