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INDIAN LITERATURE (c. 1400 B.C. – c. 500 A.D.)

I. Hinduism a. dominant religion of India b. Hindu = “river” in Sanskrit > Indus River c. refers to both a religion and a social system i. life is not divided into religious and secular spheres ii. religious concerns pervade all aspects of thought iii. society rigidly divided into castes d. recognizes many gods e. teaches that the soul can be reborn into countless bodies before it achieves union with a universal soul f. dharma > the unique obligations that each person must fulfill to maintain harmony in the universe g. great importance placed on memory

II. Sanskrit / Sanskrit Literature a. viewed as the most perfect of all languages b. language itself (i.e. the sound of words) regarded as sacred c. no exact counterpart for the English word “religion” d. all selections in chapter originally written in Sanskrit e. purpose of literature > to convey general and timeless truths f. no genres > just poetry, drama, and imitations of the Rig Veda

III. Rig Veda a. source of all truth and basis of religious beliefs i. rig = “praise” or “hymn” ii. veda = “knowledge” b. compiled around 1400 B.C. c. written by different authors at different times d. general concern with prosperity and comfort e. gods invoked for protection and sustenance f. place little emphasis on doing good for its own sake g. forces of nature portrayed as both benevolent and threatening h. total of 1028 hymns

IV. Taittiriya Upanishad (circa 1000-600 B.C.) a. final stage in the development of the sacred books called the Vedas

b. Upanishad = “to sit nearby” (e.g. sitting near a teacher and learning) c. treat complicated subjects in dialogues between teachers and students d. use simple stories to convey difficult ideas e. do not stress the importance of individual gods f. writers pursue abstract and philosophical questions g. vedanta i. the teaching in the Upanishads ii. the conclusion of the Vedas iii. the final statement of the hidden truth of the Vedas h. brahman i. the single principle underlying all existence ii. the one reality behind all things iii. the highest truth iv. an object of knowledge received by personal revelation rather than earned by work i. atman > the soul j. tapas > meditation > a kind of prayer-like thought that focuses the mind on what is real k. nirvana > a state of being in which the desire for earthly things has been quenched l. karma > the totality of a person’s deeds

V. Mahabharata a. compiled between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. b. no one single author c. the world’s longest epic > the length of three Bibles d. the vehicle for the moral philosophy and highest spiritual teaching of Hinduism e. still plays an active role in contemporary Indian society f. main story > the account of a fight over the rights to a kingdom g. dozens of shorter myths and tales woven into fabric of main story

VI. Bhagavad-Gita a. title means “Song of the Lord” b. one small section in the middle of The Mahabharata > can be read as a self-contained book c. 18 chapters, all narrated by a character named Sanjay d. setting > battlefield north of modern-day New Delhi, prior to fighting

e. form > philosophical dialogue between two characters i. Arjuna > a warrior ii. Krishna > his chariot driver (a god in disguise) f. nonattached work > unworried participation > perform all actions without hoping for a reward g. main castes of Indian society i. Brahmans (priests) ii. rulers & warriors iii. merchants & farmers iv. peasants & laborers v. “untouchables” (not considered an actual caste)

VII. The Education of Indian Royalty a. military training b. instruction in art and literature c. guidance in social graces i. how to dress ii. how to behave toward women iii. how to spend one’s leisure time d. instruction in the intrigues of politics i. handbooks on royal administration ii. the fables of The Panchatantra

VIII. Panchatantra (200 B.C.-500 A.D.) a. title means “a treatise in five chapters” b. author > Vishnusharman c. taught young princes how to govern a kingdom and conduct their lives d. author advocates proper behavior and high moral standards e. fable > a brief narrative usually containing animal characters with human attributes f. purpose of fables > meant to provide a lesson in life